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REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 


A  MANUAL  FOR  THE  USE  OF  STUDENTS 

OF  BOTANY   IN   SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


BY 

H.  S.  PEPOON,  B.S.,  M.D. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN   BOTANY,  LAKE  VIEW  HIGH  SCHOOL,  CHICAGO 


)...  ■  '^^ll.l', 


V 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


Copyright,  1912 
By  H.  S.  PEPOON 


ALL   RIGHTS  RESERVED 
912.1 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

In  the  judgment  of  the  author  the  study  of  plants  ought 
to  begin  with  the  seed  plants,  as  these  forms  are  more  or 
less  familiar  to  the  student  and,  therefore,  appeal  to  him 
as  something  not  altogether  strange.  They  have  a  further 
hold  upon  him  because  many  of  the  forms  studied  have 
close  association  with  his  everyday  life. 

The  first  part  of  the  manual,  therefore,  deals  with  the 
general  subject  of  the  seed  plants,  treating  of  them  under 
the  great  divisional  headings  of  Seeds,  Boots,  Sterns,  Leaves, 
Flowers,  and  Fruits.  There  is  undoubtedly  more  material 
for  study  than  can  be  covered  in  a  half  year,  with  a  labora- 
tory time  of  four  hours  a  week,  but  it  is  believed  the  teacher 
should  have  abundant  subject  matter  from  which  to  select 
a  course  that  will  be  applicable  to  the  conditions  prevailing 
in  his  school. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion,  and  consequently  of 
practice,  among  those  teaching  botany  as  to  the  initial 
subject  for  the  fall  semester.  Some  begin  with  leaves, 
some  with  seeds,  some  with  fall  flowers  and  fruits,  some 
with  the  algae  (as  pleurococcus).  This  order  of  beginning 
is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  the  study  of  seed  plants 
(Part  I  of  this  manual)  is  taken  up  during  the  second  or 
spring  semester  (the  most  logical  procedure  in  the  opinion 
of  the  author).  The  study  of  plants,  as  stated  above,  ought 
to  begin  with  these  familiar  forms,  hence  an  ideal  course 
in  botany  would  start  in  February  and  end  in  January  of 
the  following  year,  the  spore  plants  following  the  seed 
plants  (i.e.  from  the  known  to  the  unknown). 


iv  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 

A  manual,  of  course,  cannot  begin  the  fall  work  in  all 
these  ways,  and  so  the  latter  has  been  chosen  as  represent- 
ing a  reasonable  method  of  introducing  the  pupil  to  the 
study.  Those  who  differ  may  easily  start  at  the  appro- 
priate part  of  the  manual  that  to  them  seems  most  judi- 
cious. 

It  has  impressed  itself  more  and  more  on  the  author 
that  a  thoroughly  logical  method  of  procedure  in  a  well- 
rounded  out  course  in  botany  is  to  occupy  ten  months  or 
two  semesters  with  the  seed  plants,  spending  as  much  time 
as  possible  under  each  division  above  named  upon  the 
practical  application  from  day  to  day  in  the  laboratory  of 
facts  and  principles  gathered. 

In  this  daily  class  work  it  is  possible  to  produce  illustra- 
tions from  the  experience  of  each  pupil  —  through  observa- 
tion, experiment,  and  everyday  contact  —  that  will  lead 
him  to  axjpreciate  the  intimate  relation  of  botanical  science 
in  some  of  its  varied  forms  to  the  welfare  of  men.  In  this 
work  there  are  suggestive  leadings  that  may  help  members 
of  the  class  to  see  that  along  lines  of  work  having  founda- 
tion in  a  knowledge  of  plants  and  their  activities  is  the 
possible  selection  of  their  life  callings.  It  is  believed  enough 
suggestive  work  has  been  outlined,  if  properly  elaborated, 
to  easily  fulfill  this  end.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  for 
the  individual  teacher  to  decide  for  himself,  or  to  adjust 
to  the  requirements  of  boards  of  education.  In  any  case, 
practical  work  should  include  a  considerable  experience  in 
the  determination  of  flowers  by  means  of  analytical  keys 
and  appropriate  floras. 

To  the  course  as  above  ideally  outlined  there  may  be 
added  a  third  semester  of  botanical  work  on  the  evolution 
of  spore  plants  and  the  study  of  principles  of  ecology. 
This  is  a. course  of  some  difliculty,  as  it  deals  so  largely 
with  microscopic  forms  and,  therefore,  requires  for  its  best 
acquirement  a  foundation  knowledge  gained  by  the  seed 


PREFACE  V 

plant  study,  because  here  the  great  plant  activities  may  be 
more  easily  experimented  with  and  comprehended  than  in 
the  far  less  conspicuous  and  much  more  unfamiliar  spore 
plants,  varied  in  form  and  habitat.  All  the  essentials  of 
ecology  may  be  further  elucidated  —  essentials  supposedly 
first  hinted  at,  at  the  least,  under  their  appropriate  seed 
plant  headings. 

It  is  not  expected  that  this  manual  will  please  every  one, 
for  seldom  do  two  botanists  agree  on  any  two  things  con- 
secutively; but  the  hope  is  expressed  that  there  is  gathered 
here  work  suitable  and  of  sufficient  merit  to  warrant  its 
use  by  all  who,  willing  to  overlook  many  minor  details  of 
disagreement,  find  the  main  ideas  and  scope  of  the  work 
commendable  and  worthy  of  attempt,  and  that  botanical 
truth  may  be  so  presented  that  the  student  will  be  taught 
to  love  plants  for  their  own  value. 

It  is  to  be  definitely  understood  that  many  forms  equally 
valuable  might  have  been  selected  as  "  representative  "  and 
some  may  have  been  unwisely  omitted,  but  the  endeavor 
has  been  to  select  such  materials  as  were  most  accessible 
and  at  the  same  time  reasonably  characteristic  of  the  vari- 
ous groups. 

The  author  desires,  here,  to  express  his  appreciation  of 
the  assistance  given  in  the  selection  and  treatment  of  the 
subject  matter  by  his  colleagues  among  the  teachers  of 
biology  in  the  Chicago  high  schools,  and  to  Mr.  Mason 
AVarner  of  Chicago  for  many  helpful  suggestions  in  con- 
nection with  manuscript  and  proof. 

II.    S.    PEPOON 


CONTENTS 

PART   I.     A   DETAILED   STUDY   OF   SEED   PLANTS, 
WITH   APPLIED   OR   EXPERIMENTAL    BOTANY 

SECTION  PAGE 

I.     A  Study  of  Seeds  and  Seed  Problems          ...  1 

II.     A  Study  of  Seedlings 7 

III.  The  Root 10 

IV.  Study  of  Stems 17 

V.  Leaves   .    .    .    .    .    .    •    .    .    .  32 

VI.     The  Study  of  Flowers  .......  45 

VII.     Study  of  Fruits.     (Various  Fruits)     ....  80 

PART   II.     OPTIONAL   PRELIMINARY   STUDIES 

I.     Suggestions        .........  82 

II.     Fall  Flowers 83 

III.     A  Study  of  Fall  Fruits         .         .         .         .        ,.         .90 

PART   III.     A   SURVEY   OF   THE    PLANT   KINGDOM 
IN   DETAIL 

I.     The  Alg^ 93 

IL     The  Fungi 115 

III.  The  Moss  Plants      ........  130 

IV.  The  Fern  Plants 137 

V.     The  Seed  Plants 147 

VL     Simple  Classification  of  Plants 156 

Review  Tables 158 

Index 159 

vii 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

A   MANUAL    OF    BOTANY 

PART  I 

A  DETAILED   STUDY  OF   SEED   PLANTS,  WITH 
APPLIED  OR  EXPERIMENTAL  BOTANY 

SECTION  I.    A  STUDY  OF  SEEDS  AND  SEED  PROBLEMS 
1.    The  Beax  Seed.     A  Dicotyledox 

General  statement.  Seeds  of  navy,  red,  kidney,  and  lima 
beans,  dry  and  soaked  overnight,  are  to  be  carefnlly  com- 
pared, and  the  size,  form,  color,  and  external  markings  of 
each  observed.  The  difference  in  size,  caused  by  the  soak- 
ing in  water,  is  to  be  particularly  considered.  How  has  the 
seed  been  increased  in  volume  ?  What  similar  familiar  facts 
are  of  common  occurrence  in  tlie  home  kitchen  ?  How  does 
the  water  gain  entrance  to  the  seeds  ?  When  a  seed  is 
planted,  what  corresponding  occurrence  takes  place  ? 

External  features.  Examine  the  bean  for  three  external 
markings  on  the  concave  margin.  The  large  central  one  is 
the  scar  (hilam).  Examine  its  surface  with  a  lens.  What 
caused  this  scar  ?  Look  closely  with  the  lens  near  either  end 
of  the  scar.  What  do  you  find,  and  how  do  the  two  features 
differ  from  each  other  ?  One  is  the  pore  (microjvjle),  and 
the  other  is  the  blister  (raphe  or  chalaza).  These  names  are 
truly  descriptive,  and  pores  and  blisters  are  easily  distin- 
guished. 

nonnn  library 

N.  C.  State  College 


2  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Seed  coat.  With  a  pin,  needle,  knife,  or  even  with  the 
finger  nail,  very  carefully  cut  or  tear  the  skin  {seed  coat  or 
testa)  the  whole  length  of  the  convex  margin ;  remove  and 
study.  Observe  its  firmness.  Examine  the  skin,  and  the 
part  removed  from  it,  and  find  which  one  bears  the  three 
marks  named  under  "External  Features."  Pass  a  pin  into 
the  pore  and  discover  in  what  structure  it  appears,  on  tlie 
inside.  Look  at  the  seed  proper  and  find  a  structure  that 
"  fits  "  into  this  depression.  Keep  this  point  in  mind  when 
you  study  sprouting  seeds. 

The  seed  proper.  Examine  the  seed  you  have  removed  from 
the  seed  coat.  Carefully  separate  the  large  halves  (cotyle- 
dons or  seed  leaves)  until  they  break  apart.  The  little 
structure  lying  between  the  cotyledons  and  fastened  to  each 
is  the  little  plant.  This  with  a  lens  may  easily  be  seen  to 
consist  of  a  little  stem  (hyjyocotyl)  and  a  pair  of  tiny  leaves 
(plumule).  Observe  that  the  cotyledons  are  attached  to  the 
larger  upper  end  of  the  hypocotyl  (points  where  leaves  are 
attached  to  a  stem  are  nodes) ;  with  the  lens  find  a  small, 
short,  stemlike  part  connecting  this  point  with  the  plumule 
(the  embryo  stem).  The  cotyledons  and  the  little  plant 
connecting  them  (all  there  is  in  a  bean  seed)  is  the  embryo. 

Drawings.  1.  Draw  a  seed,  side,  hilum,  margin,  and  end 
views.  2.  Draw  the  seed  with  the  cotyledons  separated 
and  their  concave  margins  next  to  each  other,  with  the  little 
plant  in  place.  3.  Draw  the  little  plant  (x4).  4.  Draw 
three  cross  sections  at  different  points. 

Other  work.  Experiments.  Seeds  that  may  be  easily  sep- 
arated (on  soaking)  into  similar  halves  are  Dicotyledons, 
(two  cotyledons).  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  large  cotyle- 
dons ?  What  other  seeds  do  you  know  that  have  the  two 
cotyledons  ?  Try  this  experiment :  Scrape  some  of  the 
soaked  bean  and  apply  weak  iodine  solution  to  the  scrap- 
ings and  observe  the  change  of  color.  This  shows  what  sub- 
stance in  the  bean?     (Test  in  the  same  way  some  corn- 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  3 

starch  with  the  weak  iodine,  and  you  see  a  deep  blue  purple 
color,  tlie  characteristic  reaction  when  iodine  is  added  to 
anything  containing  starch.)  Such  a  large  accumulation  of 
starch  is  called  food  storage.  What  is  this  food  stored  for  ? 
Name  ten  large  seeds  that  have  a  similar  storage. 

2.    The  Corn  —  A  Monocotyledon 

Statement.  Kernels  of  large  yellow  corn,  soaked  for 
twenty-four  hours,  are  to  be  preferred,  although  any  kind  of 
field  corn  will  answer. 

External  features.  A  corn  "  seed  "  will  be  found  to  have 
two  broad  faces,  two  narrower  margins,  a  blunt  and  a  coni- 
cal end.  Compare  the  faces  and  observe  that  one  has  an 
oblong  lighter  area  called  the  embryo,  occupying  the  central 
part  of  1?his  face  near  the  conical  end. 

Seed  coat.  With  a  sharp  knife,  determine  whether  or 
not  the  corn  has  a  seed  coat  similar  to  that  found  in  the 
bean.  Break  off  the  conical  end  and  observe  the  dark 
oblong  scar  concealed  in  the  grain  within  this  end.  This  is 
called  the  funiculus.  What  purpose  has  this  pointed  end 
and  what  structure  had  the  same  use  in  the  bean  ? 

Internal  features.  With  a  sharp  knife  make  four  sec- 
tional cuts  through  the  corn,  viz. :  (1)  A  cross  section  near 
the  blunt  end  and  outside  of  the  embryo.  (2)  A  cross  sec- 
tion through  the  embryo,  near  the  middle  of  the  kernel. 
(3)  A  long  section  midway  between  the  two  margins  and 
perpendicular  to  the  embryo  face.  (4)  A  long  section 
parallel  to  the  embryo  face  and  about  one-third  of  the  dis- 
tance through  tlie  seed  from  this  face. 

Appearance  with  iodine.  After  examining  each  section 
stain  them  with  weak  iodine  and  study  the  various  parts 
that  now  appear  much  more  distinctly.  The  part  unstained 
in  the  different  sections  is  the  embryo,  which  may  be  seen 
to  consist  of  an  outer  scutellum  or  cotyledon  and  a  central 


4  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

axis,  the  little  plant,  having  the  same  parts  as  in  the  bean ; 
that  part  nearest  to  the  pointed  end  of  the  seed  being  the 
hypocotyl.  The  stained  part  is  the  endosperm.  What  sub- 
stance does  it  contain?  About  how  much  of  the  seed  does 
it  occupy?  What,  in  purpose  or  use  to  the  plant,  does  it 
correspond  to  in  the  bean?  Observe  in  all  these  operations 
that  the  corn  seed  cannot  be  split  into  halves,  as  can  the 
bean  and  all  other  dicotyledonous  seeds.  All  such  undivid- 
able  seeds  are  monocotyledoyious.  Name  other  kinds,  if  pos- 
sible, having  this  feature. 

Drawings.  Make  enlarged  drawings  showing  the  face 
views,  a  marginal  view,  and  all  of  the  above  sections,  care- 
fully labeled. 

3.    Pine  Seeds 

Where  procured.  The  seeds  of  any  available  species  of 
pine  may  be  used.  Pinon  "  nuts  *'  may  be  found  iu  fruit 
stores  in  large  cities.  Other  conifer  seeds  may  be  substi- 
tuted, but  pine  seeds  are  larger  and  therefore  better. 

External  features.  Soak  a  number  of  seeds  for  several 
hours.  Examine  one  for  any  external  features.  What  part 
is  occupied  by  the  seed  proper  and  what  part  by  the  broad 
and  thin  wing  9  What  use  has  the  wing?  Throw  a  seed 
up  into  the  air  and  watch  closely  as  it  falls.  What 
would  happen  if  a  strong  wind  were  blowing  on  the  falling 
seed? 

Sections.  With  a  sharp  knife,  make  some  long  sections 
of  the  soaked  seeds.  Observe  the  seed  coat  on  the  outside 
and  a  thin  papery  layer  next  within  (the  nucellus  remnant). 
The  mass  of  the  seed  is  the  endosperm.  What  color  is  it  ? 
Embedded  in  this  is  the  young  plant  or  embryo.  Examine 
this  very  carefully  (m)  and  find  the  long  stem,  hypocotyl, 
and  a  cluster  of  tiny  structures  near  the  blunt  end  (upper) 
of  the  seed,  the  many  cotyledons.  The  plumule  is  hidden 
from  view. 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  5 

Drawings.     Draw  the  seed,  side  and   face    views,  and  a 
long  section  (m)  to  show  the  internal  parts. 


4.    Comparative  Seed  Study 

Other  work.      Make  a  table  showing  a  number  of  different 
seeds,  using  the  following  form  :  — 


Name  of 
Seed 


Dk.vwincs 

OK  Seed 


Mono  or 

Ok  OTYLEDON 


External 
Features : 

Color, 
Hardness 


Win;  he 
Obtain  KD 


Uses 


5.    Seed   ("umpositiox 

Tests.  The  instructor  may  either  demonstrate  or  give 
directions  to  the  student  so  that  he  may  discover  for  himself 
the  cruder  composition  of  the  bean,  corn,  and  other  seeds, 
particularly  showing:  (1)  The  amount  of  water  in  ordi- 
nary dry  seeds,  by  carefully  weighing  a  few  ounces,  drying 
thoroughly  over  furnace  or  gas,  and  weighing  again.  Re- 
cord your  results  in  per  cent.  (2)  The  presence  of  starch, 
by  the  iodine  test.  (3)  The  presence  of  sugar.  The 
Fehling  or  other  test.  (See  root  study,  for  4,  5.)  (4)  The 
presence  of  albumen  (a  i)roteid  matter).  The  IVIillon  test. 
(5)  The  presence  of  oil.     The  ether  test. 

Problems.  Of  what  use,  if  any,  are  these  various  sub- 
stances to  the  seed,  or  when  will  they  be  of  use  ?  Of  what 
use  to  man  are  these  substances  ?  Why  are  seeds  normally 
very  dry?  What  explanation  have  you  to  offer  for  the 
great  variation  in  the  size  of  seeds  ?  Name  the  largest  and 
smallest   seeds    you    know.       What    important    groups    of 


6  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

manufactured  products  are  made  from  seeds  ?     See  Applied 
Work  on  Seeds. 

6.    Seed  Table 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  seeds  used  in  your  home,  in  what 
form  used,  and  for  what  purpose. 

7.   Vegetable  and  Flower  Seeds 

Write  a  statement  of  the  seeds  used  in  gardens  (the  home, 
market,  and  florists')  and  on  the  farm. 

What  do  you  find  out  about  the  importance  of  seeds  for 
these  purposes  ?  Examine  garden  catalogues.  Find  out, 
if  possible,  where  garden  and  flower  seeds  are  grown  in 
great  quantities  for  sale.  How  do  you  account  for  the  very 
great  number  of  kinds  of  different  seeds,  for  example,  of 
beans,  there  being  originally  only  about  four  distinct  sorts 
or  species  and  now  the  varieties  number  about  400  ? 

8.    Applied  Work  ox  Seeds  , 

Practical  applications  of  the  facts  learned  by  the  study 
of  different  seeds,  based  upon  the  experience  of  the  pupil. 

1.  The  Starch  Industries.  Soak  a  number  of  kernels  of 
white  corn,  remove  the  embryos  ;  dry  thoroughly,  crush,  and 
remove  the  seed  coats.  Pulverize  the  remaining  part  most 
thoroughly  in  a  mortar.  When  very  fine,  stir  thoroughly  in 
cold  water  and  set  away  in  a  clean  quiet  place  to  settle. 
When  this  is  accomplished,  pour  off  the  water  and  any 
loose  material.  The  solidly  deposited  residue  will  be  found 
by  the  iodine  test  to  be  almost  pure  starch.  This  illustrates 
in  a  crude  way  the  immense  starch  manufacturing  of  the 
United  States  from  corn.  Many  chemical  and  mechanical 
means  are  added  to  secure  a  pure  product. 

Compare  your  product  {hp)  with  cornstarch  and  laundry 
starch.     Add  boilin.G:  water  and  observe  the  result.     Take 


A   MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  7 

equal  weights  of  each  preparation  just  named,  mix  in  equal 
amounts  of  water,  and  add  one  drop  of  10  %  iodine  to  each 
ounce  of  the  mixture.  Study  carefully  the  resultinf?  colors 
for  similarity  of  tints.  Read  about  starch  making  in  the 
United  States.  Collect  all  possible  seeds  that  are  used  for 
starch-making  purposes. 

2.  The  Glucose  Industry. 

3.  The  Oil  Industry. 

4.  TJie  Proteid  Products. 

5.  The  Drug  Seeds. 

6.  Perfumes  and  Spices. 

7.  Beverages. 

8.  Miscellaneous  Manufactures. 

9.  The  Seed  Industry  for  F((rms  and  Market  Gardens  and 
House  Gardens. 

Topics  2-9  are  largely  suggestive.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture of  glucose,  albumen,  and  oils  is  generally  beyond 
the  facilities  of  an  ordinary  laboratory.  Seeds,  however, 
may  be  collected  and  classified  according  to  use.  Some 
crude  results  of  interest  and  value  may,  however,  be  obtained 
by  the  student  or  instructor  in :  (a)  Action  of  sulphuric  acid 
on  starch  of  corn  (a  glucose  step),  (b)  Oil  by  expression 
or  extraction  by  ether  (see  roots),  (c)  Production  of  tinc- 
tures of  seeds  by  digestion  in  alcohol. 

SECTION  II.    A   STUDY  OF   SEEDLINGS 

Methods  of  growing.  Seedlings  of  various  kinds  are  to  be 
grown  in  various  ways  in  quantity.  Between  folds  of  heavy 
felt  paper,  kept  moist,  is  an  excellent  method.  Wet  saw- 
dust, sand,  and  many  other  ways  may  be  tried.  The  student 
ought  to  grow  seedlings  and  keep  a  record  of  the  methods 
used  or  record  those  grown  in  the  laboratory. 

Stages.  Seedlings  for  the  purpose  of  study  may  be  con- 
veniently considered  in  three  stages:   (a)  First  stage,  the 


8  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

lirst  appearance  of  the  sprouting  h3q30cotyl ;  (b)  second 
stage,  the  first  appearance  of  the  plumule ;  (c)  third  stage, 
the  appearance  of  roots  and  foliage  leaves. 

Detailed  study.  Study  each  seedling  furnished,  and  deter- 
mine what  part  of  the  seed  first  shows  growth ;  also  from 
what  part  of  the  seed  coat  it  makes  its  exit.  Study  this 
feature  in  sprouting  seeds,  placed  on  blotters  between  glass 
plates,  and  observe  direction  of  growth  of  the  hypocotyl.  In 
the  same  way  study  the  growing  plumule,  observing  its 
direction  of  growth. 

Carefully  observe  the  cotyledons  in  the  sprouting  seeds 
of  various  stages  and  determine  any  change  of  position, 
form,  or  color  assumed.  Study,  if  possible,  seeds  of  beans 
and  peas  planted  in  earth,  and  observe  the  hypocotyl  arch 
in  the  one  and  its  absence  in  the  other,  and  the  effect  on 
the  cotyledons  in  each  case. 

Drawings.  Make  drawings  showing  the  several  stages  in 
each  seedling  furnished  for  study. 

Other  work.  In  the  growth  of  the  seedlings,  what  becomes 
of  the  seed  coats  ?  Study  well  this  feature  in  as  many  seed- 
lings as  possible.  What  seems  to  be  the  purpose  of  the 
cotyledons  ?  What  agent  do  you  think  causes  a  change  in 
the  color  of  the  cotyledons  ?  What  benefit  to  the  seedling 
may  this  change  bring  about?  From  the  various  experi- 
ments made,  what,  in  your  judgment,  are  the  necessary  con- 
ditions for  the  sprouting  (renewal  of  growth)  of  the  seeds  ? 
Look  up  the  word  "  germination "  and  find  out  whether  or 
not  it  is  a  correct  term  to  use  for  the  sprouting  of  seeds. 
What  is  the  first  change  in  the  sprouting  of  a  seed,  that  the 
dry  seed  undergoes,  and  how  is  this  brought  about  ?  (Read 
the  osmosis  experiment,  under  roots.)  Try  another  simple 
experiment,  which  consists  in  placing  a  few  dried  raisins  in 
water  and  observing  the  results,  which  are  like  those  occur- 
ring in  the  soaked  seed. 

Experiments.     At  this  stage  in  your  study  make  the  fol- 


A   MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  9 

lowing  test  for  sugar :  Dissolve  a  little  grape  sugar  in  water, 
and  add  Fehling's  solution  (which  can  be  obtained  at  any 
drug  store).  What  is  the  color  reaction  ?  Now  place  the 
sugar  solution  in  a  test  tube  and  hoil.  The  change  of  color 
to  orange  is  a  test  for  grape  sugar. 

Grind  some  dry  oats  in  a  mortar,  add  water  and  Fehling's 
solution,  and  boil.  Kepeat,  but  use,  instead  of  dry  oats, 
some  oats  that  are  well  sprouted.  How  do  the  two  experi- 
ments differ,  and  what  is  your  explanation  ? 

Food  of  seedlings.  What  are  the  sources  of  all  the  differ- 
ent foods  a  seedling  uses  from  the  time  when  the  first  sprout 
shows  until  it  may  be  said  to  have  become  a  young  plant  .? 
What  really  determines  whether  a  plant  is  in  the  seedling 
stage  or  not? 

Seedlings  in  trade.  Why  are  some  varieties  of  plants  (as 
vegetables)  "  raised  "  from  seed,  while  others  (like  potatoes, 
and  many  fruit  shrubs  and  trees)  are  raised  from  cuttings, 
grafts,  buds,  etc.  ?  What  are  "  seedlings  "  commercially 
and  experimentally  ? 

Other  experiments.  Try  as  many  experiments  with  seeds 
and  seedlings  as  time  and  the  materials  at  hand  will  permit. 
Some  or  all  of  the  following  are  very  instructive,  and  re- 
quire but  little  in  the  way  of  apparatus :  (The  instructor 
Avill  give  explicit  directions.)  (a)  Various  methods  of 
sprouting  seeds,  (b)  The  effect  of  light  and  darkness  on 
seed  sprouting,  (c)  The  effect  of  cold  and  heat  on  seed 
sprouting,  (d)  The  effect  of  lack  of  moisture  or  too  much 
moisture.  (e)  The  direction  naturally  assumed  by  the 
plumule  in  seeds  sprouted  in  a  pan.  (/)  Oats  sprouted  in 
a  deep  glass  jar,  and  tested  in  early  morning  or  later  day- 
time with  lighted  taper  for  gas  production,  (g)  Various 
forms  of  cotyledons  and  amount  of  development  of  the  same. 
(h)  Seedling  direction  and  light,  (i)  Rapidity  of  sprout- 
ing of  various  seeds,  with  possible  relation  to  size  of  seeds 
and   length   of   time,     (j)  The   reason    for    the   change  in 


10  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

composition  of  starchy  seeds  when  tliey  sprout  (industries 
founded  on  this  fact),  (k)  The  amount  of  water  absorbed 
by  dry  seeds  in  the  soaking  process,  (l)  The  vitality  or 
"keeping"  quality  of  various  seeds  may  be  studied  in  gar- 
den catalogues,  farm  books,  cyclopedias,  etc.  Remember 
about  seeds  of  weeds  at  this  point,  (711)  Weight  of  seeds 
compared  with  that  of  water.  Cleaning  seeds  by  flotation 
of  bad  seed,  impurities,  chaff,  etc.  (n)  The  temperature  of 
sprouting  seeds.  (0)  The  effect  in  seedling  growth  of  the 
removal  of  the  cotyledons.  (2^)  Seedlings  grown  in  water, 
sand,  loam,  and  other  conditions.  (q)  Survival  test  in 
crowded  seedlings  (of  birdseed,  for  example).  (?-)  Per  cent 
of  vitality  test  (i.e.,  number  of  seeds  in  each  100)  to  show 
how  many  seeds  will  sprout.  Use  flannel,  felt  paper,  or 
blotting  paper,  kept  moist  on  plates  covered  with  panes 
of  glass.  Obtain  seeds  from  as  many  sources  as  possible 
in  order  to  answer  the  query,  "  Do  cheap  seeds  pay  ?  " 
(s)  Many  other  experiments  may  be  tried,  the  above  sug- 
gesting others  along  the  same  lines. 


SECTION   III.     THE    ROOT 
1.    Its  Origin,  Structure,  and  Growth 

Source  of  material.  The  various  seedlings  of  the  preced- 
ing exercises  will  furnish  much  root  material.  Corn  grown 
in  thistle  tubes,  peas  and  corn  on  carles  in  water  bottles,  seed- 
lings between  plates  of  glass,  can  all  be  used  to  good 
advantage.  The  grocer's  vegetable  window  furnishes 
many. 

Origin.  On  examining  seedlings  well  advanced,  what 
part  of  the  growing  seed  has  developed  into  the  root  ? 
Observe  whether  there  is  but  one  main  root  {primary)  or 
several  {multiple  primary)  proceeding  from  the  lower  {radi- 
cle) end  of  the  hypocotyl. 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY        •  11 

Observe,  further,  how  soon  the  roots  form  branches.  In 
the  bean,  for  example,  what  effect  would  the  formation  of 
root  branches  have  on  the  elongating  hypocotyl  ? 

Does  the  pea  act  in  the  same  manner  or  not  ? 

In  the  corn,  oats,  and  some  other  seeds,  observe  that  some 
roots  arise  from  other  parts  of  the  young  plant  than  the 
radicle  end  of  the  hypocotyl.  These  are  secondary  or 
adventitious  roots. 

Draw  the  various  forms  of  roots  mentioned  above,  not 
omitting  the  seed  name  in  your  drawings. 

Root  hairs.  Position.  Examine  young  radish,  oat,  or  corn 
roots  of  vigorous  growth  and  observe  the  fine  hairs  (^root 
hairs)  covering  a  portion  of  the  surface.  With  reference 
to  the  root  tips  where  are  these  hairs?  What  is  their 
form  ?  What  is  their  size  and  color  ?  Use*  (771)^  and  (Ip)  and 
study  carefully.  Offer  any  explanation  you  can  for  their 
absence  from  the  root  tip.  To  understand  this,  take  a 
well-grown  corn  or  pea  seedling,  rule  black  ink  marks  at 
equal  distances  from  the  seed  to  root  tip  and  replace  in  the 
growing  position.  Examine  twenty-four  and  forty-eight 
hours  later  and  observe  the  relative  position  of  the  marks. 
Where  does  the  root  have  its  linear  growth,  or  growth  in 
length?  What  effect  on  the  root  hairs  would  growth  in 
their  immediate  vicinity  have?  Examine  the  varying 
colors  of  the  corn  root  and  see  if  any  correspondence  exists 
between  color  and  place  of  growth. 

Make  drawings  showing  results  of  your  observations  on 
root  hairs  and  place  of  growth. 

Structure  of  root  tip.  Examine  (Ip)  the  root  tips  of 
radish,  oats,  or  onion  seedlings.  Observe  the  shape  and 
minute  structure  of  the  extreme  end  (root  caj)).  What  is 
the  purpose  of  this  part  of  the  root  ? 

Examine    the   root  in    the  region  of   the  root  hairs  and 

1  Throupjhout  the  Manual  (m)  signifies  use  the  hand  lens;  (Ip)  the 
low  and  (hp)  the  high  power  of  the  compound  microscope. 


12  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

observe  the  outer  cells  (epidermis) ;  the  central  axis  {stele); 
the  cell  layers  between  these  two    (cortex). 

Draw  these  features  of  a  root  (I})). 

Root  hairs,  their  use.  Read  about  the  subject  of  "  Hoot 
Hairs"  and  find  the  purpose  of  the  hairs.  By  what  pro- 
cess do  they  accomplish  this  purpose  ?  Estimate,  if  you 
can,  how  much  they  increase  the  root  surface.  What  effect 
would  the  "  pulling  up "  of  a  seedling  have  on  these  frail 
structures  ?  How  then  should  plants,  in  transplanting, 
be  treated  ?     What  damage  would  be  caused  by  dry  air  ? 

2.    The  Purpose  of  Roots 

Uses.  Roots  have  one  or  more  of  the  following  uses : 
(1)  As  holdfasts ;  (2)  as  absorbers  of  moisture  and  food 
material  in  solution ;   (3)  as   storehouses   of   reserve  food. 

Their  forms  are,  therefore,  variously  modified  to  meet 
these  demands  made  upon  them.  Roots  are,  furthermore, 
markedly  influenced  by  soil  conditions,  resulting  in  well- 
marked  peculiarities  of  shape  and  extent. 

Forms.  Tlie  primary  tap  root.  When  the  radicle  end  of 
the  hypocotyl  develops  a  single  root,  whose  direction  of 
growth  is  directly  downward,  the  branches  being  much 
smaller  and  short,  such  a  root  is  a  tap  root.  Examine  the 
roots  of  corn,  pea,  spinach,  and  any  other  forms  furnished, 
and  determine  which  answer  the  requirements  of  the  tap 
root.  Many  such  roots  have  naturally,  or  by  cultivation, 
become  very  fleshy  with  reserve  food  and  then  are  called 
storage  roots.  Examine  the  roots  of  carrots,  parsnips,  tur- 
nips, beets,  salsify,  horse-radish,  and  radish. 

Draw  the  various  forms  of  tap  roots  you  have  on  hand, 
naming  such  as  are  storage. 

Examine,  at  this  time,  the  roots  of  the  onion  and  observe 
that,  while  they  are  multiple  primary  roots,  each  root  itself 
is  not  fleshy  but  threadlike  or  fibrous.  Examine  grass  roots, 
oats,  wheat,  and  other  forms  showing  fibrous  character. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  13 

Draw  examples  of  fibrous  roots. 

Soils  and  form.  Examine  the  roots  of  plants  that  have 
grown,  some  in  dry  sand  or  clay  and  others  in  moist  ground, 
others  again  that  have  grown  in  ordinary  soil  conditions. 
What  influence,  if  any,. do  you  find  the  soil  conditions  to 
have  upon  the  root  form  ?  Why  do  storage  roots  have 
such  an  excessive  amount  of  reserve  food?  Seek  to 
discover  if  this  excessive  storage  is  found  in  cultivated 
plants,  or  is  found  in  wild  ones  also.  What  effect  might  a 
soil  very  rich  in  })lant  food  have  upon  the  form  of  a  tap  root  ? 

Other  root  forms.  Examine  the  aerial  roots  of  poison  ivy, 
English  ivy,  or  other  similar  climbers.  What  purpose  have 
these  roots  ? 

If  possible,  look  at  some  large  fig  or  pandanus  trees  in 
the  greenhouses  of  the  pjublic  parks,  and  observe  the  air 
prop  roots.  Look  at  pictures  of  banyans  and  other  tropical 
trees,  and  observe  the  same  features.  Examine  also,  if 
obtainable,  the  lower  end  of  a  cornstalk  iov  projj  roots. 

In  the  orchid  house,  examine,  or  in  books  on  orchids,  read 
about  their  air  roots  and  their  use. 

What  differences  woidd  you  find  between  the  roots  of 
annuals  and  those  of  biennial  and  perennial  plants  ? 

Show  all  such  roots  by  diagrams  or  drawings. 

3.   Root  and  Seed  Composition  Experiments^ 

Statement.  These  experiments  may  be  made  by  the  stu- 
dent, but  in  many  cases  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  them 
demonstrated  by  the  instructor,  the  student  taking  full  notes 
of  apparatus  and  results. 

Tests.     Various  composition  tests  are :  — 

1.  The  starch  test  which  has  been  given ; 

2.  The  grape  sugar  test  (given  in  Exp.  in  Seedlings) ; 

3.  The  albumen  test  (proteids). 

1  Have  been  referred  to  under  the  seed  study. 


14 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Grind  up  some  peas  in  water,  add  more  water,  and  place 
the  mixture  in  a  test  tube.  Add  a  few  drops  of  Millon's 
solution  and  observe  that  a  whitish  coagulum  forms.  Now 
boil  and  watch  the  color  of  the  coagulum  as  the  mixture 
cools.  To  verify  this  experiment  use  some  known  albumen 
compound,  observing  the  final  salmon  jjink  resulting.  (A 
proteid  test.) 

There  are  other  good  tests,  —  as  nitric  acid  and  ammonia. 

4.  Oil  test. 

Grind  up  flax  seed  or  mustard  or  yellow  corn,  place  in 
bottle  and  add  ether  and  cork  tightly.  Set  aside  for  some 
days  and  then  examine  for  yellow  color  of  solution 
and  for  a  thin  layer  of  oil,  shown  on  the  evaporation  of  the 
ether. 

Test  now  the  various  roots  furnished,  preferably  by  the 
pupil,  for  starch,  sugar,  albumen,  and  possibly  oil.  Let  the 
pupils  obtain  the  results  and  tabulate.  Seeds  may  be  tested 
in  the  same  way. 

5.  Water  content. 

Various  i^ots,  particularly  vegetables,  ought  to  be  ob- 
tained and  small  portions  carefully  weighed  fresh,  and  after 
most  thorough  drying  weighed  again  to  obtain  the  per  cent 
content  of  water.  (See  the  following  table  for  report  on 
results.)  From  these  results  determine  which  vegetable 
has  the  most   solid  nourishment  (composition) 

Table  of  composition  and  water  content 


Seed  or 

EOOT 


Starch, 

Sugar,  Oil, 

Proteid 


Weight, 
P'resii 


Weight, 
Dry 


Per  Cent  of 
Water 


Value  as 
Food 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  15 


4.    Root  Expkrimkxts 


1.  Spinach  roots,  cut  off  near  tlie  tip  and  placed  in  shal- 
low eosin  (water  solution). 

After  twenty-four  hours,  cut  off  and  make  long .  section 
to  find  the  path  of  absorbed  material  in  the  roots.  Shows 
upward  path  of  absorbed  liquid. 

2.  Oats  between  glass  plates. 

As  roots  grow  record  direction  and  rotate  plates ;  wait 
twenty-four  hours  and  record  direction  again.  Repeat  the 
rotation  and  observe  the  repeated  effect  on  the  roots  and  the 
green  shoot  direction  also. 

3.  Root  osmosis  experiment. 

Hollow  out  a  fresh  carrot  from  the  top,  taking  care  not  to 
pierce  the  walls,  fit  in  a  rubber  cork  (very  tightly)  pierced 
by  a  long  glass  tube,  fill  the  cavity,  through  tube  or  before 
its  insertion,  with  syrup  water,  slightly  colored  with  some 
anil  in  stain,  place  the  carrot  (with  outer  skin  well  scraped), 
in  a  vessel  of  pure  water,  and  securely  stay  all  parts  of  the 
apparatus.  Observe  the  results  from  day  to  day,  apply  this 
experiment  to  the  root  in  its  absorption  of  water  and  dis- 
solved food,  seeking  in  the  plant  for  analogues  of  the  ex- 
periment parts.  An  egg  osmosis  experiment  is  given  in 
many  books,  but  this  is  easier  to  set  up,  and  is  more  logical. 

4.  Corn  seedling  in  thistle  tube,  placed  in  pure  water. 
Observe  the  remarkable  root  growth  and  explain  also  the 

duration  of   life  in  the   corn   living  apparently  on  water. 
Through  what  may  other  food  be  taken  ? 

5.  Seeds  sown  in  shallow  soil  on  marble  slab. 

Allowed  to  grow  for  some  time  and  then  removed.  Ob- 
serve the  effect  on  slab.  Seek  for  explanation  and  bearing 
on  root  work. 

6.  Seeds  in  sponge  kept  moist. 

As  roots  grow,  observe  their  direction  witli  reference  to 
gravity  and  moisture,  and  apply  to  growing  plants. 


16  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

7.  Root  pressure. 

Explained  and  set  up  by  instructor. 

8.  Root  color,  whether  exposed  to  the  light  or  not. 

9.  Pea  seedling  supported  on  nettiug  tied  over  the  mouth 
of  a  bottle  filled  with  water.     Similar  to  4. 

5.    Experimental  Applications  of  the  Root  Study 

1.  Based  on  roots  as  human  food.  Bring  to  the  labora- 
tory specimens  of  all  rout  vegetables  used  in  your  home, 
and  from  the  tests  in  a  previous  section  determine  the  food 
constituents.  The  home,  market  garden,  and  in  a  few  cases 
the  farm  growing  of  these  roots  should  be  learned.  The 
history,  if  possible,  ought  to  be  determined,  in  particular 
the  native  country  of  each,  and  the  character  of  the  wild 
plant,  if  existing.  The  fine  quality,  size,  and  productive- 
ness are  due  to  selection  of  the  best  seeds,  from  the  best 
plants,  careful  cultivation  in  the  best  soil,  and  the  crossing 
of  fine  plants  to  secure  a  combination  of  their  good  quali- 
ties. Nature  makes  the  wild  plant,  but  man  produces  the 
choice  cultivated  forms.  Founded  upon  these  principles 
are  the  profitable  industries  of  market  gardening  and  seed 
production.  Certain  lines  of  manufacture,  as  dry  vegetables, 
canned  vegetables,  and  preserved  horse-radish.  Greater  than 
all  other  features  is  the  saving  to  the  home  by  the  growing 
of  vegetables  in  the  home  garden. 

2.  Based  upon  the  sugar  you  find  in  the  beet.  You  have 
found  sugar  in  the  garden  beet.  By  selection,  as  in  1,  beets 
are  now  grown  containing  as  much  as  20  %  of  cane  sugar, 
and  many  farmers  have  become  independently  rich  by  the 
growing  of  sugar  beets.  Find  out,  if  possible,  the  amount 
of  sugar  made  from  beets  in  1910  or  later. 

3.  Based  on  starchy  roots,  arrowroot  and  tapioca.  Florida 
farmers  raise  much  cassava  for  the  starch  or  tapioca. 

Roots,  like  licorice  aud  sassafras^  used  in  medicine  and 
for  flavoring. 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  17 

Many  miscellaneous  roots,  for  drugs,  dyes,  and  other 
manufactures. 

SECTIOX   IV.     STUDY   OF   STEMS 
1.    The  Winter  Twig,  External  Features 

General  statement.  Twigs  of  hickory  and  butternut  are 
particularly  good  for  this  purpose,  although  almost  any  twig 
will  do,  if  occasion  demands.  Twigs  may  be  gathered  at 
any  time  after  the  leaves  fall  and  kept  in  sawdust  or  sand, 
in  the  cold.  The  student  ought  to  be  encouraged  to  study  the 
twigs  on  the  tree,  and  at  first  hand  learn  their  individual 
characteristics.     Simple  keys  may  be  made  for  this  purpose. 

Surface  features.  Observe  the  surface  color  of  the  twig 
in  all  its  length.  How  does  it  vary  and  what  may  be 
the  explanation?  Examine  the  epidermis  and  determine 
whether  it  is  rough  or  smooth,  dull  or  shining.  Some  twigs 
are  hairy  or  downy.  Besides  these  general  features  you 
ought  to  be  able  to  find  four  special  features  on  the  twig, 
viz. :    (1)  buds  ;  (2)  leaf -scars ;  (3)  lenticels ;  (4)  zones. 

1.  Buds.  According  to  their  position,  buds  are  terminal 
(apicaT)  and  lateral.  What,  in  the  hickory,  is  the  difference 
in  the  size  of  these  two  kinds  ?  Further,  how  do  the  lateral 
buds  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  year's  growth  ?  What 
explanation  can  you  give  for  these  differences  in  size? 
Other  twigs  show  similar  variation  in  greater  or  less  degree. 
Examine  a  bud  and  observe  the  covering  of  scales.  Are  these 
few  or  many  in  number  ?  How  are  they  arranged  with 
reference  to  each  other  ?  What  is  their  color  ?  This  is 
often  very  characteristic  of  the  special  kind  of  tree.  What 
sort  of  surface  has  the  scale?  It  may  be  smooth,  downy, 
hairy,  or  varnished.  What  purpose  have  these  special 
features  ? 

Make  a  long  section  tlirough  an  apical  bud  and  study 
(m).     Observe  the  cut  edges  of  the  scales  and,  in  particular, 


18  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

the  delicate  structures  near  the  center  of  the  bud  (tiny 
leaves  and  possibly  flowers  distorted  and  crowded  upon  the 
growing  point  of  the  stem).  \Vhat  then  does  the  winter  bud 
consist  of,  and  what  will  it  become  during  the  next  season's 
growth  ?  What,  again,  may  be  the  purpose  of  the  scales  with 
their  various  coatings?  What  provision  has  the  jdant  to 
insure  continued  growth  if  the  apical  bud  is  destroyed  ? 

Caution.  Mistakes  are  comnjonly  made  here.  Consult  a 
good  reference  book  (up  to  date)  on  the  use  of  the  bud 
covering.  Make  drawings  showing  an  apical  bud  and  a 
lateral  bud,  natural  size  (m),  also  a  bud  section  (in). 

2.  Leaf  scars.  Examine  the  surface  below  the  buds  for 
peculiar  scars  or  marks.  What  are  their  shape  and  size 
compared  to  the  twig  diameter?  Observe  carefully  the 
surface  of  the  scars.  What  do  you  find?  What  maybe 
the  causes  of  the  scars  and  the  scar  markings? 

Draw  a  scar  in  relation  to  the  bud  above  it  (m). 

3.  Lenticels.  On  the  surface  of  the  twig  look  for  small 
marks,  scattered  here  and  there,  varying  much  in  number, 
size,  and  shape,  in  different  twigs.  These  are  the  lenticels  or 
air  pores,  and  are  caused  by  the  stretching  of  the  epi- 
dermis in  growth.  Same  use  in  part  as  the  stomates  (in  leaf 
study). 

4.  Zones.  In  a  twig  of  some  length  or  of  several  years' 
growth  look  for  peculiar  bands  of  small  scars,  at  irregular 
intervals  along  the  twig.  These  are  the  zones  of  scars. 
What  explanation  have  you  to  offer  for  their  production  and 
irregular  distribution  ?  What  relation  may  there  be  between 
zone  number  and  age  or  years'  growth?  Compare  the 
hickory  twig  with  as  many  others  as  possible,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  shedding  light  on  the  zone  question.  An  apple  twig 
is  very  fine  for  zone  study. 

Twig  drawing.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole  twig, 
natural  size,  showing  buds,  scars,  lenticels,  and  zones,  and 
write  a  clear  description  of  the  same. 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY 


19 


2.    Exercises  on  Various  Twigs  from  Forest  and 
City  Trees 

Bud  arrangement.  Twigs  show  four  possible  bud  arrange- 
ments. (1)  One  bud  at  each  node,  each  successive  bud  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  twig  from  the  preceding.  True 
alternate.  (2)  One  bud  at  each  node,  with  other  arrange- 
ment than  in  (1).  (See  the  subject  Phyllotaxy,  in  reference 
books.)  Scattered  alternate.  This  is  the  most  common  ar- 
rangement. (3)  Two  buds  at  each  node.  Opposite.  (4)  Three 
or  more  buds  at  each  node.     Whorled. 

The  bud  arrangement  is  very  characteristic  of  certain 
trees  and  tree  families,  and  should  be  carefully  observed. 

Twigs  to  be  drawn.  Various  twigs  ought  to  be  drawn  care- 
fully and  brief  characteristics  written  to  familiarize  the 
pupil  with  our  common  trees.  Among  those  easily  obtained 
are  elms,  maples,  basswood,  oaks,  ash,  cherries,  pojylars,  cotton- 
wood,  loillows,  catalpa,  box  elder,  besides  many  others  of 
rarer  occurrence.  The  characteristics  aside  from  those 
shown  by  the  drawing  are  color,  smoothness,  odor,  of  both 
bark  and  buds. 

Make  a  table  of  all  the  twigs  studied,  as  follows  :  — 


Name 

Where 
Native 

Cult. 
OK  Not 

Buds 

Arrange- 
ment 

Size 

Color 

Bark 

Growth 

Color 

Surface 

Rapid 

Slow 

20  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Street  trees.  Determine  the  trees  that  are  found  growing 
along  the  streets,  and  the  relative  abundance  of  each  kind. 
Seek  an  explanation  for  the  abundant  planting  of  a  few 

varieties. 

3.     Climbing  Stems 

Material.  Material  for  this  study  may  be  found  com- 
monly in  woodlands,  or  lacking  such  sources,  the  vines  of  the 
flower  garden  and  lawn  may  be  drawn  upon.  If  possible, 
however,  honeysuckle  and  bittersweet,  Virginia  creeper  and 
grape,  besides  herbaceous  climbers,  should  be  studied. 

Twiners.  Examine  the  twining  stems  of  honeysuckle  and 
hitiersiceet .  Compare  their  stem  diameters  with  their  length 
of  vine.  How  does  the  proportion  compare  with  the  simi- 
lar measurement  of  upright  shrubs  ?  Why  do  these  plants 
twine  ? 

Holding  the  entwined  stem  with  its  upper  end  toward  you, 
observe  the  direction  in  which  the  stem  twines.  Does  it 
twine  with  (from  left  to  right)  or  contrary  (from  right  to 
left)  to  the  hands  of  a  watch  or  clock  ?  Do  both  kinds  of 
vines,  named  above,  twine  in  the  sanie  direction  ? 

Draw  each  vine  and  designate  direction  of  twining. 

Study  other  forms,  if  obtainable,  in  the  same  manner. 

Tendril  bearers.  Examine  grape  or  Virginia  creeper  and 
observe  the  coiled,  slender  branches  (tendrils).  Study,  if 
possible,  material  showing  all  ages  of  tendrils.  Observe  a 
double  effect  of  the  coiling  of  the  tendril.  How  do  the 
tendrils  of  the  two  vines  differ  ?  How  are  the  tendrils  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  buds  ?  Discover,  if  possible, 
other  vines  that  have  similar  tendrils. 

Draw  the  tendril  and  adjacent  stem  of  such  specimens  as 
you  have. 

What  advantage,  if  any,  does  either  form  of  climber  pos- 
sess? 

Air  roots.  Study  a  stem  of  the  poison  ivy  (inclosed  in  a 
bottle).     What  structure  does  this  vine  have  to  enable  it  to 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  21 

climb  ?  Is  it  similar  to  or  different  from  the  forms  adopted 
by  twiner  or  tendril  bearer  ?  The  structures  on  the  "  ivy  " 
are  really  air  roots  and  might  have  been  considered  in  the 
previous  study. 

Draw  a  portion  of  the  ivy,  showing  air  roots. 

Table.  Make  a  table  of  all  the  climbing  vines  you  know, 
fillincr  out  headings  as  follows : 


Woody  or  Herbaceots 


Climbs  How 


CrLTIVATED    OR    NOT 


4.    Modified  Stems 
Tubers 

Potato.  Examine  the  common  potato.  What  is  the 
shape  ?  Find  the  point  of  attachment  to  the  plant  portion 
that  bears  it.  In  particular,  look  at  the  eyes  sunk  here  and 
there  in  the  surface  and  the  markings  near  them.  What 
structures  on  an  ordinary  stem  do  these  eyes  and  markings 
remind  you  of  ?  What  bears  the  potato ;  that  is,  to  what  is 
it  attached,  a  root  or  a  stem  ?  Observe  the  cluster  of  eyes 
opposite  the  attachment  end.  What  part  of  the  stem  may 
this  be  considered  ?  The  potato  tuber  is  a  stem  modified 
for  a  special  purpose.  What  is  this  purpose  ?  Try  the 
following  test :  — 

Scrape  some  potato  flesh,  mix  it  with  water,  and  add 
iodine  solution.     What  does  the  result  show  ? 

Draw  a  potato  tuber,  naming  all  the  parts. 

Other  tubers.  Study,  if  obtainable,  other  tubers,  as  arti- 
chokes, yams,  etc. 

Potato  continued.  To  grow  potatoes  tlie  tuber  is  cut  up 
into  pieces,  each  bearing  one  or  more  eyes,  and  these  j^ieces 
are  planted.  Name  other  plants  that  are  propagated  in  a 
similar  manner  by   planting  stems.     This  may   be   called 


22  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

"artificial  vegetative  multiplication."  What  would  happen 
if  you  planted  the  seeds  of  a  potato  ?  How  are  new 
varieties  of  potatoes  produced  ?  You  ought  to  learn  what 
the  schoolboy  Burbank  did.  Why  is  this  tuber  called  the 
Irish  potato  ?  What  other  plant  rightfully  might  deserve 
to  have  the  name  potato?  Study  the  history  of  the  potato 
and  determine  its  relation  to  other  plants  that  form  a  plant 
family,  the  Night  Shades;  also  its  original  home  and  its 
characteristics  in  a  wild  state.  Read  about  the  Night  Shade 
family,  and  find  out  the  vegetables  that  belong  to  the  same. 

Beginning  at  the  bunch  of  eyes  at  one  end,  trace  a  line  in  ink 
to  the  opposite  end,  following  a  series  of  e?/^'^' that  are  evidently 
arranged  in  a  line.  Continue  until  all  eyes  are  marked  out. 
What  figure  do  you  find  marked  on  the  surface  ? 

Experiential  application.  Scrape  several  large  potatoes 
until  you  have  a  mass  of  pulpy  "  scrapings."  Place  them  in 
a  large  clean  dish,  pour  on  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  stir 
vigorously  for  10  minutes.  Cover  and  allow  the  mixture  to 
remain  for  24  hours.  At  the  end  of  that  period,  pour  off 
carefully  all  the  water  with  its  ^floating  debris.  A  layer  of 
starch  will  be  found  in  the  bottom.  With  improvement,  of 
course,  but  practically  the  same,  this  is  the  European 
method  of  starch  making.  AVhy  do  the  factories  of  the 
United  States  make  most  of  the  starch  out  of  corn  ?  Take 
equal  quantities  of  the  potato  starch  you  have  made  and 
corn  laundry  starch.  Examine  with  hp,  test,  and  then  add 
boiling  water  in  equal  amount  to  each  starch.  Compare 
with  each  other  for  consistency,  color,  stickiness,  odor,  and 
any  other  features  you  may  notice. 

Starch  is  the  almost  universal  food.  What  per  cent  of 
your  food  is  starchy  ?  How  often  do  you  eat  potatoes  ? 
What  peoples  depend  largely  on  potatoes  for  food  ?  Or- 
dinary potatoes  are  \  starch  and  f  water.  Could  not  your 
experiment  above  made  show  this?  What  benefit  would 
an  increase  in  starch  have  ? 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  23 


The  Rhizome  or  Horizontal   Underground  Stem 

Kinds  of  plants  with  rhizomes.  Examine  the  underground 
stem  of  a  fern,  common  sand  rush,  Solomon's  Seal,  or  false 
Solomon's  Seal ;  observe  the  apical  bud  or  buds.  Are  there 
any  lateral  buds  ?  What  evidences  are  there  of  former 
attachments  of  aerial  stems  ?  What  caused  the  scars  ? 
Observe  the  roots,  as  to  their  number  and  place  of  origin. 

Make  drawings  of  the  various  rhizomes  furnished. 

Purpose.  What  advantage,  if  any,  is  the  one  apical  bud  ? 
Why  is  the  stem  direction  horizontal  ?  What  advantage  to 
any  plant  is  the  possession  of  an  underground  stem  of  this 
character  ? 

From  a  study  of  these  various  rhizomes,  find  some  con- 
stant character  that  enables  one  to  decide  that  these  struc- 
tures are  stems  and  not  roots. 

Table.  Read  under  the  title  "  Rhizomes,"  and  in  other 
Avays,  try  to  find  out  a  number  of  useful  plant  products, 
furnished  by  these  peculiar  forms  of  stems,  and  place  in  a 
table  as  follows  :  — 


Name 

Where  Found 

Use 

Orris  "Root" 

Italy 

Tooth  Powder 

Note.  Remember  that  many  rhizomes  are  commonly  designated 
as  "roots"  in  both  common  and  commercial  language.  Bloodroot, 
ginger  root,  etc.,  are  rhizomes. 

Field  work.  Examine,  in  the  proper  season,  plants  that 
bloom  in  early  spring,  with  reference  to  their  underground 
portions.  Observe  the  number  that  have  rhizomes.  Ex- 
plain the  presence  of  such  structures  in  early  blooming 
plants.  What  advantage  may  there  be  that  will  insure 
rapid  growth? 


24  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Applications.  Obtain  a  specimen  if  joossible  of  each  of  the 
following.     The  drug  store  keeps  them. 

a.  Ginger  d.    Geranium 

b.  Turmeric  e.    Calamus 

c.  Orris  /.    Sarsaparilla 

Take  three  vials  for  each  specimen.  Take  equal  quanti- 
ties of  each,  crush  in  a  clean  mortar,  one  at  a  time,  and 
place  in  vial,  labeling,  ginger,  1,  2,  and  3,  and  so  on,  for  the 
others.  Fill  vials.  No.  1  with  hot  water ;  No.  2  with  water 
and  glycerine,  equal  quantities  of  each ;  No.  3  with  60  % 
alcohol.  Set  all  the  vials  away  for  one  week,  and  then 
compare  1,  2,  and  3  of  each  series,  by  color,  odor,  taste,  and 
residue.  Your  experiment  illustrates,  roughly,  how  medi- 
cines and  flavors  may  be  made.  Many  other  solvents  besides 
the  ones  given  are  used. 

B^dbs.     (Bud  Type  of  Stem) 

Form  and  structure.  Examine  bulbs  of  onions,  narcissus, 
tulips,  gladioli,  and  other  forms  convenient  to  obtain.  For 
purposes  of  this  study,  the  bulb  should  be  cut  into  two 
sections,  lengthwise  through  the  middle.  A  bulb  is  in  its 
general  plan  of  structure  very  similar  to  a  bud,  and  it  is 
well  to  revert  to  the  bud  structure  at  this  time  and  observe 
the  points  of  resemblance.  The  dense  portion  of  the  bulb, 
from  the  lower  end  of  which  the  roots  grow,  the  upper 
end  being  continued  into  an  apical  bud,  is  the  ste^n  proper. 
Observe  further  that  all  the  fleshy  scales  {modified  leaves) 
are  attached  to  this  stem.  A  stem  may  be  defined  as  ordi- 
narily and  primarily  a  structure,  the  purpose  of  which  is  in 
large  part  to  bear  leaves.     Keep  this  in  mind. 

Drawings.  Make  drawings  of  all  the  bulbs,  external  and 
sectional  views,  you  are  able  to  obtain,  carefully  naming  all 
parts. 

Other  work.      What  advantage  to  the  plant  is  the  bulb 


^panr  library 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  25 

form  of  stem  ?  Obtain  a  garden  catalogue  and  observe  the 
names  of  many, bulb-bearing  plants,  common  in  the  garden 
either  as  vegetables  or  flowers. 

Why  do  early  spring  flowers  commonly  have  some  form 
of  underground  stem,  —  bulb,  tuber,  or  rhizome,  —  or  else 
have  flesliy  roots?     (See  rhizomes.) 

Experiential  applications.  Onions,  gladioli,  tulips,  and  lilies 
grow  into  large  bulbs.  All  are  grown  in  immense  quantities 
for  food  or  for  flowers.  How  would  you  proceed  to  produce 
the  bulbs  themselves  of  the  largest  size  for  purposes  of  sale  ? 

Onions,  shallots,  leeks,  garlic,  chives,  are  all  bulbs.  How 
do  they  differ  ?  In  how  many  ways  may  the  first  be  grown  ? 
What  will  an  acre  of  onions  yield  in  bushels  and  money  ? 
What  are  Bermuda  and  Spanish  onions  ? 

Grind  up  a  large  onion,  place  pulp  in  strong  cotton  bag  on 
an  inclined  board  with  grooves  leading  to  a  common  outlet. 
Cover  with  another  board,  on  which  place  as  great  a  weight 
as  possible.  Collect  all  the  juice.  Allow  to  stand  for  24 
hours.  You  will  find  oil  and  ivater.  Which  is  on  top  ?  Sepa- 
rate by  a  pipette.     You  are  an  oil  producer. 

5.    jVItscellaneous  Stems 

Kinds  named.  Cacti  plants  and  stems  of  scouring  rushes 
ought  to  be  obtained  to  show  stems  particularly  modified  to 
do  the  work  ordinarily  done  by  other  plant  parts.  Grass 
stems  in  long  section  and  the  compound  thorns  of  honey 
locust  and  the  simple  thorns  of  hawthorns  show  other  stem 
modifications  of  importance. 

Study.  Study  carefully  each  stem  furnished.  Observe 
its  peculiarities  of  form  and  structure  and  make  drawings 
showing  all  peculiar  features. 

What  part  of  the  ordinary  plant  is  green  ?  What  color 
have  the  cacti  and  scouring  rush  stems  ?  Do  these  stems 
have  leaves  as  commonly  understood  ?     Keep  this  in  mind 


26  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

until  leaves  are  studied,  and  then  insert  here  the  purpose  of 
the  green  stem. 

Look  at  the  hollow  stem  of  the  scouring  rush  and  the 
grasses.  Offer,  if  possible,  an  explanation.  What  evidence 
is  there  to  you  to  show  that  thorns  are  really  true  stems  or 
rather  branches  ?  Compare  at  this  point  with  the  rose  or 
prickly  ash  stems  which  are  covered  with  prickles.  What  is 
the  difference  between  a  thorn  and  a  prickle  ?  What  may 
be  the  purpose  of  each  ? 

Read  in  particular  about  cacti  and  the  reason  for  their 
fleshy  stems  and  their  leaves  reduced  to  prickles.  Consult 
books  that  describe  deserts  and  their  plant  life. 

After  careful  study  and  reading,  seek  some  explanation 
for  the  peculiar  stems  (like  those  of  the  cacti,  euphorbias, 
etc.)  of  so  many  desert  plants.  These  plants,  in  their 
peculiarities,  strongly  illustrate  the  effect  of  environment 
or  surrounding  influences  on  the  form  and  structure.  Ecol- 
ogy is  the  study  of  such  influences  and  effects. 

Practical  application.  The  government  investigators  are 
doing  much  experimentally  to  find  out  what  grains,  grasses, 
fruits,  and  trees  will  grow  well  in  our  dry  West.  They  ob- 
tain their  new  forms  from  every  dry  land  on  the  earth. 
Such  forms  are  Durum  and  Speltz  wheats,  milo  and  Kaffir 
corns,  and  alfalfa. 

What  did  Mr.  Burbank  do  for  the  arid  regions  when 
he  produced  a  spineless  variety  of  cacti? 

6.    Structure  of  Stems 

Material.  Various  woody  stem  sections  should  be  col- 
lected, both  di-  and  monocotyledons.  Sumac  and  elder  are 
especially  good  for  the  former,  and  greenbrier,  cornstalks, 
and  palm-leaf  stalks  for  the  latter.  Material  may  be  pre- 
served in  formaldehyde,  if  stems  are  to  be  studied  in 
winter. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  27 

Cross  sections  of  dicotyledons.  ISIake  clean-cut  cross  sec- 
tions of  the  various  stems.  Observe  in  the  ordinary  dicoty- 
ledonous stem  (as  the  sumac)  a  central  soft  part,  inth;  an 
outer  part,  hark  (at  first  epidermis),  and  between  these  a 
layer  of  hard  material,  wood,  which  again  may  be  subdivided 
by  porous  rings  into  other  layers. 

Observe  that  the  larger  and  therefore  the  older  the  stem, 
the  more  abundant  these  latter  layers.  What  is  the  explan- 
ation that  you  could  give  ?  Running  from  the  pith  toward 
the  bark  are  radiating  lines  (pith  rays).  Compare  the  elder, 
sumac,  and  oak,  and  measure  the  proportion  of  pith  in  each. 
Why  is  the  pith  smaller  in  amount  as  the  stem  increases 
in  age  and  size  ? 

Examine  (m)  the  bark  and  find  three  layers,  white,  green, 
and  the  outside  brown  or  corky.  Study  long  sections  of  stems 
at  the  junction  of  branches  and  find  the  layers  above  named. 
Make  careful  drawings,  recording  all  the  features  of  the 
dicotyledonous  stems. 

Section  of  monocotyledons.  Examine  now  a  cross  section  of 
a  monocotyledouous  stem  and  find  three  features  :  piY/i,  ivood 
bundles,  and  outer  cortex.  Observe  the  great  difference  in 
the  arrangements  of  the  parts  in  the  two  kinds  of  stems. 

Where  in  each  stem  is  the  hardest  portion  ? 

What  occupies  the  position  of  the  true  bark  in  monocoty- 
ledouous stems  ? 

What  evidence,  if  any,  to  indicate  age  ? 

Make  drawings  of  cross  and  long  sections  of  a  monocoty- 
ledouous stem. 

Microscopic  structure.  Study  thin  sections  of  botli  kinds 
of  stems  (Ij)),  to  learn  about  the  cell  structures.  Observe 
the  great  difference  in  size,  shape,  and  cell  walls  of  the  ^)?7/i 
and  ivood. 

Make  drawings  of  a  quadrant  of  these  thin  sections,  show- 
ing the  different  kinds  of  cells  and  cell  combinations.  Turn 
to  the  fern  study  for  the  details  of  vascular  bundles  (wood). 


28 


REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 


7.    A  Study  of  TAiMiiEiis  and  Cabinet  Woods. 
Experiential  Applications 

Material.  Have  prepared  specimens  of  as  many  commer- 
cial woods  as  possible,  sawed  radially  and  tangentially. 
Collect  native  woods. 

Discover,  by  reading,  the  sonrce  of  each  form,  and  its 
valne  as  a  wood  for  various  special  uses. 

Methods  of  study.     Study  the  individual  specimens,  for :  — 

(a)  Color. 

(b)  Grain  (learn  here  the  meaning  of  "quarter-sawed"). 

(c)  Hardness  ;  hard  and  soft  woods. 

(d)  Polish. 

(e)  Weight,  compared  with  water. 

(/)  Special  markings  ("bird's-eye,"  ''burl,"  "crotch," 
"  curly  "). 

(g)  Strength  (breaking). 

(h)  Durability. 

(i)  Odor. 

(J)  Effect  of  oil  and  varnish  application. 

(k)  Ease  of  working  with  edge  tools. 

Table  of  commercial  woods 


Name 


Family 


Country 


Use 


Other  work.  What  are  veneers?  Why  are  so  many 
woods  used  mostly  in  this  form  ? 

How  are  veneers  produced  ? 

What  uses  have  veneers  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  terms  "  treating,"  "  preserving," 
"  doctoring, "  woods  for  fence  posts,  ties,  paving,  etc.  ? 
What  substances  are  used  for  preservation  ? 


A   MANUAL  OF  BOTANY 


29 


What  important  home  articles  are  made  of  wood? 

What  substitutes  may  be  used  instead  of  wood  ? 

Forestry.  What  is  the  definition  ?  The  government  has 
many  Forest  Reserves.  What  is  their  object  ?  Who  are 
Forest  Rangers,  and  what  are  they  paid  ?  Where  are  there 
Schools  of  Forestry,  and  what  do  they  teach  young  men  to 
do  ?  What  is  Burbank's  walnut  ?  What  worth  has  the 
eucalyptus  ? 

If  you  are  18  and  planted  10  acres  to  eucalyptus  and 
Burbank's  walnut,  5  of  each,  400  trees  to  the  acre,  and 
these  in  12  years  gave  you  clear  logs  that  would  square 
12  in.  by  50  ft.,  worth  to-day  (1910)  $150  a  thousand 
feet,  how  much  would  your  trees  bring  you  when  you  were 
30  years  old? 

8.    Review  Table  of  Stems 

Use  each  stem  that  has  been  studied,  and  fill  out  the 
columns  properly. 


Name 


Ordinary  Stkm^ 


Bark 
color 


Bii.l 
color 


Bua 
arrange- 
ment 


Modified  Stems 


Shape 


Where 
growing 


Purpose 


9.     SUPI'LEMENTARY    EXERGISE.       PuKPOSE    OF    StEMS 

It  ought  to  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  that  ordinary 
stems  are  leaf-bearing  structures,  and  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  buds  and  branches  aiul  the  general  habits  of  the 
plant  are  very  largely  an  effort  to  obtain  the  best  -possible 
light  relation  for  the  leaves.  Stems,  of  course,  have  many 
other  purposes,  which  you  are  supposed  to  have  stated  in 
the  review  table. 


30 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Particular  attention  ought  to  be  paid  to  the  influence  of 
environment  on  the  form,  structure,  and  habits  of  stems. 

Read  about  "Desert  Vegetation,"  "Tropical  Forests," 
"  Arctic  Plants,"  and  "  Water  Plants  "  in  this  connection. 

10.    Useful  Stems  Table 
Make  a  table  of  useful  stems  as  follows  :  — 


Name 


Where  Native 


Use  :   Crude, 
Eaw,  Cooked 


Use 
Manufactured 


IX    WHAT 

Industry 


11.    Further  Applicatioxs 

1.  You  may  make  sugar  from  sorghum,  sugar  cane,  or 
maples.  How  would  you  proceed?  How  important  is 
cane  sugar  ? 

2.  You  may  make  dyes  from  oak  and  walnut  bark. 

3.  You  may  make  a  cough  syrup  from  cherry  bark. 

4.  You  may  make  strong  fibers  from  flax  or  hemp  stem 
by  pounding  the  cured  stems,  to  break  the  woody  parts, 
and  then  separating  the  tough  long  strands  of  fiber?  What 
are  these  fibers  used  for  ? 

5.  You  may  make  tannin  from  oak  (black)  bark  or  hem- 
lock. Slowly  steep  some  chicken  skin  in  strong  decoctions 
of  either  for  a  week,  and  observe  the  results. 

6.  You  may  make  furniture,  canes,  and  other  articles 
from  crude  limbs  and  branches. 

7.  You  may  learn  how  to  prune  trees  and  shrubs  for 
form,  flowers,  or  fruit,  and  so  learn  horticulture  and 
pomology. 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  31 

12.  Physiology  of  Ste:ms 

(Some  of  the  experiments  can  be  made  by  the  stiulcnts,  others  will 
have  to  be  demonstrations  by  tlie  instructor. ) 

Exp.  1.    The  water  content  of  various  woods.    (Students.) 

Weigh  blocks  of  different  woods  freshly  cut  and  after 
drying. 

Exp.  2.  Water  content  of  heart  and  sap  woods  from 
freshly  cut  trees.    (Students.)    Conduct  experiment  as  in  1. 

Exp.  3.     Eapidity  of  decay  ;    durability.     (Students.) 

Keep  blocks  of  wood  in  moist  warm  earth  for  one  month. 
Examine  for  signs  of  decay. 

Exp.  4.     Amount  of  ash.     (Students.) 

Weigh,  burn,  and  weigh  the  ash  remaining. 

Exp.  5.     Path  of  upward  sap  movement.     (Students.) 

Place  fresh  cut  elder,  lilac,  or  other  twig  in  eosine  solution 
for  24  hours.  Make  long  sections  through  pith,  wood,  and 
bark,  and  observe  region  of  discoloration. 

Exp.  6.  Path  of  the  downward  movement  of  elaborated 
sap  or  food  in  solution.     (Instructor.) 

Exp.  7.     Tensile  strength.     (Students.) 

Weights  square  rods  of  equal  area  and  length  will  sup- 
port before  breaking. 

Exp.  8.  The  "bleeding"  of  woody  plants,  particularly 
maples,  grapes, hickory,  and  birch,  in  early  spring.  (Students.) 

Exp.  9.  Effect  of  light  and  direction  of  exposure  on  the 
color  and  thickness  of  bark.     (Students.) 

Vujve  holes  in  the  different  sides  of  trees  for  thickness. 

Exp.  10.     Earthpull  or  geotropism.     (Students.) 

Observe  the  direction  of  leafy  stems,  branches,  runners. 

Exp.  11.     Lightpull  or  heliotropism.     (Students.) 

'As  in  10. 

Exp.  12.     The  epidermis  coating  or  protective  "varnish." 

(Instructor.) 

Exp.  13.     Food  storage  of  stems.     (Instructor.) 


32  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Exp.  14.  The  effect  of  wind  pressure  and  means  of  re- 
sistance.    (Instructor.) 

Exp.  15.     Effect  of  climatic  extremes  on  bark  character. 

(Instructor.) 

Exp.  16.     Grafting.     (Students  or  instructor.) 

Exp.  17.     Budding.     (Students  or  instructor.) 

Exp.  18.  Cuttings,  stolons,  layers.  (Students  or  in- 
structor.) 

Exp.  19.     Pruning.     (Instructor.) 

The  above  list  is  largely  suggestive.  The  experiment 
details  may  be  stated  more  fully  as  the  instructor  desires. 
Other  experiments  not  named  may  be  given. 


SECTION   V.     LEAVES 
1.    Geranium  Leaves  or  other  Complete  Leaf 

General  statement.  When  the  study  of  leaves  comes 
during  the  "off'"  season,  there  is  no  better  form  to  be  easily 
obtained  than  the  geranium.  During  the  growing  season 
many  other  leaves  may  be  added  to  the  list,  but  even  at 
such  time  it  will  be  difficult  to  improve  on  this  selection. 
The  pupil  should  compare  all  available  leaf  forms,  in  order 
to  broaden  his  comprehension  of  these  most  vital  parts  of 
the  plant. 

Surface  features.  Examine  a  growing  shoot  of  a  geranium 
and  observe  the  leaves  borne  here  and  there.  What  is  tlieir 
variations  in  size  on  different  parts  of  the  shoot?  Where 
are  they  largest  and  why  ?  A  leaf  has  the  following  parts  : 
If  it  is  a  complete  leaf,  it  will  have  a  pair  of  small,  expanded 
structures,  stipules,  where  the  leafstalk  joins  the  shoot ; 
a  petiole  or  leafstalk,  bearing  at  its  outer  or  distal  end  the 
large  green  expanded  blade.  Are  all  these  parts  found  in 
the  geranium?  Observe  that  the  blade  is  supported  upon 
a  framework  of  ribs  or  veins.     When  one  main  vein  runs 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  33 

from  end  to  end  of  the  leaf,  giving  off  small  branches,  the 
leaf  is  jjinnately  veined  and  the  main  vein  is  the  midrib. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  a  number  of  equal  or  nearly  equal  veins 
radiate  from  the  base  to  the  margin,  the  leaf  is  jMhnately 
veined.  What  condition  is  found  in  the  geranium  ?  Exam- 
ine the  margin  of  the  leaf.  Is  it  even,  not  having  any 
irregularities  (entire)  or  is  it  more  or  less  irregularly  lobed 
and  toothed  or  notched?  If  tlie  notching  is  shallow,  the 
leaf  is  toothed;  if  deej),  it  is  lobed;  if  the  division  almost 
reaches  the  veins,  the  leaf  is  cleft. 

Examine  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  above  and  below,  and 
observe  the  color.  What  difference  do  you  find,  and  how 
do  you  explain  it?  Observe  the  presence  or  absence  of 
leaf  hairs  on  the  surface.  Examine  the  leaf  for  odor.  Ex- 
amine the  hairs,  (in)  and  (Ip),  and  find  that  some  have 
knobs  at  their  ends.  What  connection  may  these  hairs 
have  with  the  odor?  Brush  the  leaf  with  the  fingers  to 
test  any  difference  in  the  odor. 

On  which  side  are  the  veins  most  prominent?  What 
connection  have  the  veins  with  the  petiole?  Compare  the 
veins  to  blood  vessels.  Is  the  comparison  justifiable  ?  Com- 
pare the  veins  to  floor  joists  to  explain  their  great  promi- 
nence on  the  under  side.  Draw  (1)  a  portion  of  the  shoot 
bearing  a  leaf;  (2)  the  under  view  of  the  blade;  (3)  the 
leaf  hairs  (m)  and  (Ip). 

Epidermis.  Peel  off  the  thin  epidermis  from  the  upper 
and  lower  surfaces  of  the  leaf,  examine  with  the  Ip  or  hp,  and 
Hnd  the  irregular  epidermal  cells  and  tlie  stoniates  or  small 
openings  witli  their  two  guard  cells.  Where  are  the  stomates 
found?  Estimate  their  number  in  the  field  of  the  micro- 
scope, and  with  tliis  as  a  starting  point,  figure  the  number 
of  stomates  on  a  leaf. 

What  do  you  infer  the  stomates  and  guard  cells  are  for? 
Why  do  the  epidermal  cells  have  such  an  outline  ?  Draw 
the  epidermal  cells  and  stomates. 


34  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Structure.  Examine  the  sections  of  the  leaf  (Jp)  and 
observe  the  epidermal  layers  and  tlie  green  tnesophyll  be- 
tween. What  color  has  the  epidermis  ?  Are  the  cells  thin 
or  thick?  What  purpose  has  this  layer?  What  form 
have  the  cells  of  the  mesophyll  ?  Are  they  alike  in  shape 
throughout,  or  are  some  elongated  perpendicularly  to  the 
epidermis  (^palisade  cells)  ?  If  the  section  shows  them, 
examine  the  stomates,  and  determine  what  they  open  into. 
If  a  vein  is  cut  across,  study  its  cell  structure  and  compare 
it  with  the  vascular  bundles  in  ferns  or  in  stems  of  seed 
plants.  Notice  the  hairs  and  discover  to  what  part  of  the 
leaf  they  are  attached.  Draw  the  leaf  section  and  any 
details  of  cell  structure  observed. 

Description.  Write  a  careful,  complete  description  of  the 
geranium  leaf,  answering  all  the  questions.  Read  about 
"  Geranium  "  and  "  Pelargonium  "  in  a  good  encyclopedia, 
and  learn  the  peculiar  features  of  these  plants,  and  decide 
which  name  really  belongs  to  your  plant. 

2.    Venatio]^  and  Vernation 

Statement.  A  great  variety  of  leaves  may  be  used  and 
ought  to  be  compared  by  the  student  with  the  types  given  in 
these  exercises.  For  convenience,  the  venation  study  is 
based  on  the  following  leaves,  all  easily  obtainable  :  grass 
leaves,  Wandering  Jeiv  (Tradescantia),  hyacinth,  evening 
primrose,  elm,  oak,  maple,  violet,  ivy,  begonia,  pine,  spruce. 

Forms  of  venation.  The  pinnately  veined  and  palmately 
veined  leaves  have  been  defined  in  the  geranium  study. 
Two  other  forms  of  venation  may  be  recognized:  parallel- 
veined,  viz.,  when  the  main  veins  run  from  the  base  to  the 
apex  and  are  more  or  less  parallel,  and  finally  the  peculiar 
needle  leaves  of  the  spruce  and  pines,  with  generally  one  or 
two  central  veins.  Examine  any  of  the  above-named  leaves 
or  any  others  furnished  and  determine  the  method,  of  vena- 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  35 

tioa.  Make  careful  drawings  showing  the  character  of  the 
veining. 

Conclusions.  From  yonr  knowledge  of  common  tree  and 
plant  leaves,  which  form  of  venation  is  the  more  common  ? 
Which  form  is  best  adapted  to  large  leaves?  What  func- 
tions do  the  veins  possess  as  shown  by  the  venation? 

Vernation.  The  unfolding  of  a  leaf  from  the  bud  is  ver- 
nation. There  are  several  forms:  rolled,  folded,  twisted,  and 
coiled.  Study  and  draw  some  forms  of  vernation.  Cut  off 
twigs  of  as  many  different  trees  as  it  is  possible  for  you  to 
obtain,  place  in  water,  and  study  carefully  as  the  buds  begin 
to  swell  and  grow.  In  this  manner  many  examples  of  ver- 
nation may  be  easily  observed.  Observe  very  particularly, 
in  this  process,  that  the  bud  develops  into  a  stem  on  which 
the  leaves  are  borne  and  not  into  a  single  leaf. 

Some  odd  forms.  Some  supplementary  statements  about 
venation  may  be  made.  Certain  leaves,  like  the  common 
plantain,  appear  to  have  a  parallel  veining,  but  are  really 
net-veined.     Such  leaves  are  ribbed. 

Trillium  leaves  are  apparently  a  combination  of  parallel 
and  net  venation.  Another  type,  a  form  of  parallel  vena- 
tion, is  seen  in  the  banana  and  other  monocotyledons.  Many 
leaves  have  a  marginal  vein  into  which  the  netted  branch 
veins  terminate. 

3.    Leaf  Division 

Statement.  Many  leaves,  instead  of  consisting  of  a  single 
entire  piece  of  expanded  blade  (a  simple  leaf),  have  this 
l)lade  variously  divided,  the  lesser  amount  of  division  form- 
ing teeth  and  lobes,  and  the  greater  separating  the  leaf  into 
few  or  many  small  })ortions  called  leaflets,  all  borne  on  a 
common  stem  or  j^d'ole.  These  latter  forms  have  been 
called  compound,  hnt  divided  is  a  far  better  expression. 
The  following  leaves  are  easily  obtainable,  some  from  the 
greenhouse,  others  when  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground,  or 


36  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

in  very  early  spring :  Strawberry,  five-finger,  yellow  straw- 
berry {ijotentilla  sp.),  rose,  clover,  all  divided  forms,  besides 
which  various  toothed  and  lobed  leaves  may  be  vised,  pref- 
erably oaks,  which  as  dry  leaves  are  present  all  winter. 

Special  leaves.  Examine  each  leaf  furnished,  determine 
the  method  of  division  (palmate  or  pinnate),  the  amount  of 
division,  and  the  features  of  the  leaflets.  Examine  for 
stipules.     Draw  each  leaf,  showing  all  the  features. 

A  leaf  discussion  will  follow  later,  but  determine  at  this 
point,  if  you  can,  the  value  to  the  plant  of  divided  leaves. 
Is  it  a  common  feature  or  not  ?  Is  it  more  abundant  among 
herbs  or  among  trees  ?  Some  reasons  for  this  may  appear 
later. 

General  terms.     Many  terms  are  in  use,  especially  in  the 
older    editions  of  our   botanical  textbooks,  expressing  all 
degrees  of  variation  in  form  and  amount  of  division,  but 
the  following  seem  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  the  aver- 
age student :  (1)  Entire  margin  (lilac) ;  (2)  serrate  margin 
(willow) ;  (3)  dentate  margin  (catnip)  ;   (4)  crenate  margin 
(5)  lobed  margin  (oak,  maple) ;  (6)  cleft  margin  (hemp) 
(7)  trifoliate  leaf    (clover) ;  (8)  quinate   leaf   (five-finger) 
(9)  odd    pinnate    leaf    (locust) ;    (10)  even    pinnate    leaf 
(11)  decompound  leaf  (yarrow) ;  (12)  ternately  divided  leaf 
(meadow  parsnip) 

4.    Winter  and  Spring  Rosettes  and  Leaf  Mosaics. 
Leaf  Arrangement 

Material.  Rosettes  are  very  easily  obtained  in  the  late 
fall  or  early  spring,  from  mullein,  shepherd's  purse,  thistle, 
evening  primrose,  and  five-fingers.  A  growing  plant  of 
begonia,  geranium,  or  primrose  in  a  window  will  do  well  to 
show  the  mosaic  arrangement  on  the  stem.  For  many  pur- 
poses, specimens  mounted  on  bristol  board  behind  glass  are 
admirable  for  this  work,  and,  in  truth,  for  practically  all  the 
study  of  ordinary  leaves. 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  37 

Study  of  forms.  Examine  the  rosettes  and  observe  the 
arrangement  and  varying  size  of  tlie  leaves.  Why  do  such 
conditions  exist?  Why  do  so  many  plants  have  rosettes 
that  persist  through  the  winter?  How  are  they  preserved 
from  injury  from  the  winter  cold?  Bietiuials  and  ivinter 
annmds  commonly  possess  rosettes.  What  are  such  plants? 
Examine,  in  particular,  the  winter  rosettes  of  the  mullein 
and  look  at  the  covering  of  the  leaves.  What  is  it?  Ex- 
amine (ni  and  Ip).  Wliat  may  this  covering  be  for?  Make 
careful  drawings  of  rosettes,  showing  outline  of  the  whole 
and  details  of  one  leaf.     Draw  hairs  of  mullein  (m  and  Iji). 

Examine  a  growing  plant  that  has  for  some  time  been  in 
a  window.  What  position  do  the  leaves  occupy  with  refer- 
ence to  the  window?  What  is  the  cause  of  this  condition? 
How  are  the  large  and  small  leaves  arranged  ?  Why  is  such 
an  arrangement  called  a  mosaic .?  What  benefit  does  the 
plant  receive  from  such  an  arrangement?  Kecall  if  you 
can  the  appearance  of  ivy  leaves  or  plants  climbing  over 
brick  and  stone  walls.  Look  in  your  reference  books  for 
pictures  showing  leaf  mosaics.  Make  a  drawing  showing 
leaf  mosaics. 

Arrangement  on  stem.  Examine  growing  leafy  shoots  for 
the  leaf  arrangements,  comparing  them  with  the  bud  ar- 
rangement already  learned,  and  name  in  a  similar  manner. 
Look  down  the  shoot  with  the  apical  portion  toward  you, 
and  observe  the  position  of  the  leaves,  radiating  outward. 
What  agent  decides  the  leaf  position?  Make  a  diagram 
showing  the  leaf  position  as  a  result  of  the  last  observation. 

5.    Leaf  Modifications 

Material.  Thistles,  cacti,  cobaea,  vetch,  smilax,  pitcher 
plant,  locust,  and  head  cabbage,  besides  many  other  plants 
easily  obtained,  will  furnish  leaf  modifications  in  abun- 
dance. 


38 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Study  of  each  form.  Examine  each  modification  fur- 
nished, find  its  peculiar  characteristics,  decide  what  leaf 
part  or  parts  enter  into  it,  and  try  by  careful  and  thorough 
investigation  to  determine  what  the  modification  is  for. 
In  this  connection  read  about  cacti,  climbing  plants,  and 
insectivorous  plants.  Draw  each  modification,  naming  the 
parts. 

Table.  Make  a  table  embodying  the  results  of  3'our 
study  of  leaf  modifications,  using  the  following  model :  — 


Name  of  Plant 


Name  of 
Modification 


Part  of  Leaf 


Purpose  of 
Modifications 


Ecology.  Leaves  are  very  greatly  m(jdified  by  the 
nature  of  the  environment.  Desert  plants  have  their  leaves 
so  changed  in  form,  structure,  external  covering,  time  of 
production,  and  other  characters,  as  to  show  in  a  very 
marked  way  the  influence  of  excessive  heat  and  light  on 
leaves.  Similarl}^,  plants  of  very  wet  places  show  such 
condition  by  many  peculiarities.  Such  response  to  en- 
vironment gives  rise  to  Ecology.  This  science  is  rapidly 
assuming  great  importance  in  the  study  of  plants  and  their 
activities. 


6.  Broad  and  Narrow  Leaved  Evergreens 
Material.  Without  much  difficulty  there  may  be  ob- 
tained enough  specimens  of  lemon,  rubber,  and  certain  fig 
species  from  greenhouses  and  vinca  (myrtle)  from  the  open 
ground,  and  also  pine  and  spruce,  to  make  a  satisfactory 
study.  The  pupil  should  seek  further  knowledge  by  look- 
ing in  reference  books  and  examining  pictures  of  tropical 
plants,  especially  trees. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  39 

Study  of  forms.  Observe  the  general  form  of  the  leaf. 
What  peculiarities  of  thickness,  leaf  margin,  and  surface  do 
you  observe  ?  Determine  the  fitness  of  the  leaf  in  all  par- 
ticulars to  remain  long  on  the  plant  and  its  adaptation  to 
great  moisture  and  heat,  or  to  great  cold.  Examine  a 
"transverse  section  of  a  leaf  (Ip.),  and  compare  with  that 
of  the  geranium,  Make  drawings  showing  the  various 
leaves  and  the  details  of  structure. 

How  can  you  explain  the  presence  of  such  broad,  ever- 
green leaves  on  the  vinca,  exposed,  as  it  may  be,  to  great 
cold,  whereas  most  leaves  of  this  character  (broad)  are 
found  on  trees  of  warm  and  moist  regions  ?  Are  the  leaves 
really  evergreen  ?  Compare  them  with  the  narrow-leaved 
evergreens,  like  the  pine  of  cold  countries,  and  observe  the 
great  difference  in  size  and  form,  and  seek  carefully  for  an 
explanation  of  the  difference. 

IMake  a  list  of  ten  forms  of  each  kind,  stating  where  each 
is  found. 

7.    Leaf  Experiments  and  Determination  of  Leaf 
Functions  ^ 

1.  Grow  some  oats  in  the  dark  in  a  deep  narrow  glass  jar, 
and  at  the  end  of  5  or  6  days  observe  the  color  of  the 
leaves.     What  is  the  explanation  ? 

2.  Place  a  small  vigorous  geranium  in  total  darkness,  for 
the  same  length  of  time,  keeping  it  well  supplied  with 
water.  From  the  two  experiments  what  is  necessary  for 
the  healthy  chlorophyll  formation  ? 

3.  Place  a  vigorous  leafy  shoot  in  a  small  bottle  of  water 
and  seal  about  the  stem  with  wax.  Place  under  bell  jar. 
What  is  the  result?  The  process  or  function  illustrated 
here  is  called  transpiration. 

1  Other  exi)crinieiits,  other  than  the  ones  ^iven,  may  suggest  them- 
selves. 


40  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

4.  Take  a  vigorous  geranium,  or  better  a  primula  obconica 
(baby  primrose).  Water  well,  wrap  the  whole  pot  and  top 
of  soil  in  tin-foil,  making  a  tight  joint  about  the  plant 
stem,  then  carefully  weigh  and  balance  on  a  pair  of  scales. 
Record  the  results  from  day  to  day.  What  is  it  that  the 
plant  is  giving  off  that  affects  its  weight,  and  where  does 
this  substance  come  from  to  the  plant?  Through  what 
plant  structures  does  it  reach  the  leaves  ? 

Read  "  Transpiration  "  and  hud  out  its  value  to  the  plant, 
and  in  particular,  how  it  is  regulated.     Try  experiment  5. 

5.  Place  fresh  leaves  of  mullein  and  lettuce  on  the  table 
for  one  hour  and  observe  the  results.  Whicli  wilts  more 
rapidly?     "What  explanation  is  there  ? 

6.  Take  a  vigorous  geranium  having  several  healthy  leaves. 
Inclose  a  young  leaf  in  black  French  tissue  paper.  Place 
the  plant  in  the  sunlight,  and  after  three  days  test  this 
leaf  and  another  similar  but  uncovered  leaf  for  starch. 
(Remove  the  chlorophyll  with  alcohol.)  Which  leaf  shows 
a  starch  reaction  ?  The  process  of  starch  making  in  leaves 
or  other  green  parts  is  pliotofiyntliesis.  Read  about  this  in 
reference  books.     (See  algae  studies.) 

7.  Take  a  vigorous  leaf  from  a  geranium  near  the  close  of  a 
sunny  day,  take  out  the  chlorophyll,  and  test  for  starch. 
Take  another  from  the  same  plant  in  the  early  morning, 
before  any  sunlight  has  affected  it,  and  treat  as  before. 
Explain  the  results. 

8.  Experiments  on  respiration  are  difficult,  and  the  pupil 
may  read  about  this  function. 

Record  carefully  each  experiment  performed  above,  or 
any  other  introduced  by  the  instructor  or  ivorked  out  by 
yourself.  Where  possible,  make  diagrams  to  show  ap- 
paratus. 

9.  Take  a  geranium  shoot  and  i)lace  cut  end  in  a  weak 
eosin  solution.  Examine  the  leaf  after  a  day  or  two,  and 
observe  the  location  of  the  color,  and  explain. 


A   MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  41 

10.  Place  vigorous  plants  of  various  kinds  in  a  window, 
and  allow  them  to  remain  for  a  few  days.  Turn  each  half 
around  and  determine  the  varying  rapidity  of  the  response 
of  the  leaves  to  the  light.     Seek  for  any  explanation. 

11.  Place  a  number  of  sprouting  salsify,  carrots,  spinach 
or  other  vegetables  Jlat  in  a  tray.  Keep  for  24  hours. 
What  direction  have  the  youugeM  leaves  assumed?  Split  a 
sprouting  onion  in  halves.  Place  on  the  table  with  cut  sur- 
faces up.     What  happens  to  the  sprouts  ? 

12.  As  in  4,  but  place  the  whole  plant  in  an  inverted  glass 
bell  jar  of  great  height  (16  in.  or  more)  filled  with  water. 
Place  in  bright  sunlight.  Observe  gas ;  collect  and  test  for 
oxygen. 

13.  As  in  1,  but  grow  in  the  light  until  vigorous.  Place 
in  closet  at  close  of  day,  bring  out  the  next  morning,  and 
lower  a  taper  to  the  bottom.  What  happens  ?  P)reathe 
repeatedly  into  a  similar  deep  glass  and  test  as  before. 
Compare  the  two. 

14.  Take  fresh  leaves  of  fern,  lettuce,  plantain,  beet, 
maple,  mullein,  sunflower,  water  lily,  corn,  carrot,  and  oniou. 

Allow  each  to  remain  on  the  table  in  dry  room  for  one 
hour  or  until  well  wilted.     Kecord  varying  time. 

Now  plunge  each  into  cold  water  and  let  it  remain  for 
some  time.  What  amount  of  revived  freshness  does  each 
show  ?  AVhat  caused  the  wilting  and  how  did  the  cold  bath 
r«?store  ? 

8.    EcoL()(;i('AL  Study  ov  Leaves 

Field  work.  Throughout  the  season,  from  early  spring  to 
fall,  find  out  and  observe  carefully  as  many  rosette  forms 
of  leaves  as  possible.  Rosettes  found  in  early  spring,  es- 
pecially, should  be  noticed,  with  the  locality  in  which  each 
grows.  What  do  you  infer,  by  studying  each,  as  to  the 
plants'  life  duration  ?  How  did  they  survive  tlie  cold 
weather?     What  })roportion   of  the  plants  having  rosettes 


42 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


are  annual?  Examine  shepherd's  purse  and  peppergrass 
very  early  in  spring.  When  did  these  rosettes  of  annuals 
start  to  grow? 

Examine  plants  growing  in  sandy  and  very  dry  places, 
and  find,  if  possible,  any  leaf  peculiarities.  Do  you  find 
any  number  with  common  features?  If  so,  try  to  find 
some  explanation. 

Examine  plants  found  in  dark  woods,  and  compare  with 
the  same  kind  of  plants  in  similar  soils  growing  in  bright 
sunshine. 

Study  carefully  as  many  water  plants  as  you  can  obtain, 
and  seek  for  characters  shared  in  common  by  all.  Examine, 
if  possible,  leaves  from  all  sources,  under  the  compound 
microscope,  for  any  peculiarities  of  stomates  or  structure. 

Conclusions.  From  all  the  examples  you  have  studied, 
what  do  you  conclude  regarding  the  influence  of  surround- 
ings on  leaf  structure? 

Table.  Tabulate  your  observations  on  the  forms  examined, 
using  the  following  (Two  examples  are  given  as  guides  to 
proper  use.)  : 


Name  of 
Plant 

Location 

Leaf 
Arrange- 

'  MENT 

Size  of 
Leaf 

Leaf 

Surface 

Texture 

Position 

Mullein 

very  dry 

spring 

large 

very 

dry 

horizon- 

soil 

rosettes 

hairy 

tal 

Pickerel 

in  water 

one 

large 

very 

fleshy 

vertical 

weed 

smooth 

9.    Useful   Products   of   Leaves   axd   Application   op 
THE  Study  to  the  Wants  of  Man 

1.    Make  a  table  of  useful  leaves  and  their  products,  using 
the  following  form,  seeking  particularly  to  have  important 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


43 


samples  under  each  of  the  following  uses :  (a)  for  food ; 
(b)  for  medicine ;  (c)  for  drink ;  (cl)  for  clothing ;  (e)  for 
ropes  and  cordage;  (/)  for  dyes;  (g)  for  flavoring. 


Namk 


WllEKK    NaTIVK 


Part  of  Leaf 
Used 


PROUUrr,    IK    MANirFACTCRED, 

i>R  Crude  Use 


2.  Obtain  leaves  of  century  plant  or  other  agaves  ;  pound 
with  a  heavy  club  on  a  very  firm  wooden  block ;  wash  away 
all  the  debris ;  continue  until  you  have  a  bunch  of  fibers. 
The  original  way  of  preparing  fiber  for  weaving  or  cordage 
making.  Sisal,  used  in  harvesting,  is  an  agave.  What 
other  leaf  fibers  are  noted  ? 

3.  Steep  finely  divided  green  tobacco,  rose  i)etals,  and 
horehound,  catmint,  plantain,  or  onion  (all  fall  leaf  forms)  in 
50%  alcohol  for  one  week  in  tightly  closed  bottles.  Press 
the  leaf  masses  dry  and  study  resulting  liquids  for  color, 
odor,  and  taste.  You  have  made  medicinal  preparations. 
By  following  rules  of  weight  and  amount  of  li(|uid  you 
would  have  known  strengths  of  drugs. 

4.  Crush  celery,  lettuce,  cabbage,  beet,  spinach,  rhubarb, 
kale,  chard,  dandelions,  endive,  or  other  leaf  vegetables,  and 
after  mixing  with  water,  test  for  sugar,  starch,  etc. 

5.  Dry  quickly  vigorous  plants  of  red,  white,  and  alsike 
clover,  alfalfa,  various  kinds  of  grasses,  corn  leaves,  and 
young  pea  vines.  What  relation  has  greenness  to  rapidity 
of  drying?  How  has  the  odor  been  affected?  You  have 
"  made  hay."  What  are  the  elements  that  bring  success  in 
haymaking?  Try  dipping  some  of  your  half-dry  hay  in 
water  until  soaked,  then  continue  drying.  I  f  possible,  obtain 
or  grow  a  stalk  of  tobacco.     Hang  up  to  dry  in  a  dark,  well- 


44 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


aired  place.     Observe  change  of  color,  odor,  and  taste.     (A 
step  in  tobacco  manufacture.) 

6.  Take  four  leaves  of  the  same  kind  and  treat  as 
follows :  — 

No.  1.  Place  between  blotters,  weight  with  a  heavy  book  ; 
examine  at  the  end  of  six  days. 

No.  2.  Place  between  sheets  of  writing  paper,  and  then 
as  in  No.  1. 

No.  3.    Place  between  leaves  of  a  large  book  for  six  days. 

No.  4.  As  in  No.  1,  but  change  blotters  night  and  morn- 
ing. Compare  results  at  the  end  of  the  six  days.  You  are 
making  herbarium  specimens. 

7.  Dry  very  quickly  violets,  roses,  lavender  flowers,  and 
sage,  spearmint,  thyme,  marjoram,  or  other  leaves.  What 
effect  has  drying  on  the  odor  ?  Place  one  half  in  open  boxes 
and  one  half  in  tight  receptacles  ;  test  for  odor  in  two  weeks. 
Basis  of  culinary  herbs  and  sachet  preparations. 

8.  Take  five  small  cabbage,  tomato,  aster,  lettuce,  or  other 
plants  ;  transplant  each  of  four  into  flower  pots :  For  No.  1, 
leave  in  condition  as  transplanted.  For  No.  2,  water 
thoroughly.  For  No.  3,  cover  in  No.  1  condition  by 
a  glass  tumbler.  No.  4,  cover  in  No.  2  condition  by  a 
glass  tumbler.  No.  5,  use  as  a  check  experiment  not  trans- 
planted. 

Compare  the  results  and  learn  how  to  transplant. 

10.    Review  Table  of  Leaves 


Leak  Arkange- 

MENT 


Venation 


Division 


Parts 
Present 


Leak 
Surface 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  45 

11.    Exercise  (A  Wkittex  Statement) 
Review  topic  questions  on  leaves 

1.  What  are   leaves?     Give  a  good  definition  in  your 
own  words. 

2.  What  are  the  functions  of  leaves  ?  Name  all  you  know. 

3.  Why  do  leafy  plants  need  sunlight  ? 

4.  Why  do  biennials  generally  produce  winter  rosettes  ? 

5.  What  do  desert  plants  do  to  regulate  transpiration  ? 

6.  Why  are  parasitic  flower  plants  generally  devoid  of 
green  leaves  ? 

7.  AVhat  advantage,  if  any,  are  divided  leaves  ? 

8.  What  effect  have  forests  on  the  moisture  of  the  atmos- 
phere ? 

9.  What  are  evergreen  plants  ? 

10.  Name  three  most  useful  leaf  products. 

11.  Why  do  the  cacti  have  their  leaves  reduced  to  spines  ? 

12.  What  explanation  do  you  have  for  a  cabbage  head  ? 

13.  Explain  the  pitcher  of  the  pitcher  plant. 

14.  Explain,  leaf  arrangement  with  reference  to  light. 

15.  Why  do  leaves  wilt  ? 

SECTION   Vr.     THE   STUDY   OF    FLOWERS 
General  Preface  to  the  Special  Studies 

General  statement.  There  are  many  different  methods  in 
vogue  for  the  study  of  flowers,  the  most  common  being,  per- 
haps, to  study  the  trillium,  tulip,  or  some  other  flower  of 
easily  discernible  parts. 

It  has,  however,  been  amply  justified  in  the  author's 
school  experience,  that  a  better  understanding  is  to  be 
gained  by  beginning  with  such  an  extremely  simple  struiv 
ture  as  the  willow ;  for  by  so  doing  the  student  learns  tlie 
subject  from  the  foundation,  and  appreciates  much  more 
certainly  that  the  essential  oryans  are  all  that  are  absolutely 


46  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 

necessai'}'  in  order  that  the  flower  ma}^  fulfill  its  destiny. 
Then  again  it  is  the  logical  procedure  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex,  and  the  procedure  is  like  the  addition  of  one  brick 
to  another  until  the  building  is  complete,  and  not  the  demo- 
lition of  a  fully  made  structure  to  find  its  component  parts. 

The  student  is  expected,  in  the  following  pages,  to  learn 
first  of  all  the  primary  features  of  the  normal  flower,  in  all 
its  parts,  and  then  by  a  study  of  characteristic  flowers  of  the 
great  type  families  to  familiarize  himself  with  not  only  in- 
creasingly complex  forms,  but  to  also  learn  the  rudiments 
of  classification,  the  use  of  artificial  keys  for  plant  deter- 
mination, and  the  features  that  distinguish  the  most  im- 
portant families  of  plants,  either  because  they  illustrate 
some  great  feature  of  flower  structure  and  adaptation  to 
certain  definite  ends,  or  because  they  are  greatly  important 
to  man  from  the  economic  standpoint. 

The  student  is  expected  to  bring  in  samples  of  all  flowers 
possible  to  be  obtained,  and  gradually  to  learn  to  locate 
them  in  their  natural  families.  Flower  tables  posted  on  the 
wall,  giving  credit  for  first-reported  flowers,  and  for  all 
flowers  seen  by  the  classes  and  definitely  identified,  add 
largely  to  the  interest.  Herbarium  material  may  be  col- 
lected, but  this  is  by  no  means  the  essential  element  in  suc- 
cessful flower  study.  As  far  as  may  be,  the  flowers  should 
be  gathered  by  the  class,  thus  adding  to  the  value  of  the 
work  by  the  personal  interest  of  those  who  have  assisted  in 
furnishing  material. 

1.    The  Willow 

Staminate    Willoin  Floivers,^  or   Yellofo  Pussies  or  Catkins 

The  shrub  and  its  habitat.  You  ought  to  notice  the 
willows  as  they  grow,  the  places  they  prefer,  especially  with 

1  Willow  flowers  are  of  two  kinds,  borne  on  sei)arate  plants. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  47 

reference  to  the  presence  of  water  or  moist  ground.  Observe 
the  size  of  the  shrubs  and  the  frequency  of  the  yellow- 
flowered  form  now  to  be  studied. 

The  catkin.  Examine  the  "  j^ussies  "  as  they  grow  on  the 
willow  tree  or  shrub,  and  observe  that,  as  stated  in  the  note, 
there  are  two  forms  borne  on  separate  plants.  What 
feature  easily  distinguishes  the  one  kind  from  the  other? 
The  technical  name  for  the  flower  clusters  is  catkin.  What 
relation  does  this  bear  to  the  common  name  "  pussies  "  ? 

Examine  a  staminate  catkin  and  observe  its  form  and 
color.     To  what  is  the  color  due? 

The  small  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  catkin  are  bracts. 
Observe  the  catkin  in  detail  and  find  out  what  structures 
make  up  its  bulk.  Does  the  catkin  appear  with,  after,  or 
before  the  leaves?  Draw  the  catkin,  natural  size  or  slight- 
ly enlarged,  as  it  is  attached  to  the  stem. 

The  flower.  Examine  an  individual  structure  or  part  of 
this  catkin  (jioicer)  (m).  It  consists  of  a  dark  scale,  bearing 
one  or  two  slender,  knobbed  stalks  (stamens).  What  is 
peculiar  about  the  scale,  and  what  use  has  this  peculiar 
feature?     Draw  a  staminate  flower. 

The  stamen.  Examine  a  stamen  (??i)  and  (?/))  and  find  the 
slender  stalk  (Jilament)  and  the  top  enlargement  (anther). 
What  color  is  each?     Draw  a  stamen  (m)  and  (Z^)). 

Pollen.  Crush  an  anther  on  a  slide,  mount  in  water,  and 
examine  (hj)).  Observe  the  pollen  grains  (microspores). 
What  is  their  form,  color,  and  number.     Draw  several. 

Examine  pollen  grains  that  have  been  in  water  for  a 
couple  of  hours  and  observe  that  some  show  sprouts  (ger- 
mination). Remember  this,  as  it  will  be  referred  to 
later. 

Count  the  number  of  catkins  on  a  well-grown  branch,  also 
the  number  of  flowers  for  an  average-sized  catkin.  From 
this  count  form  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  pollen  produced 
by  a  single  willow.     Why  is  there  such  an  enormous  pro- 


48  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 

duction  ?  Shake  a  fully  blossomed  branch.  What  effect  has 
it  on  the  pollen?  AVhat  natural  agent  might  shake  the 
branch?  "What  then  would  become  of  the  pollen?  (Re- 
ferred to  later,  so  remember.) 

Pistillate,  or  Green  Catkins 

Catkin.  Examine  a  pistillate  flower  cluster  (inflorescence). 
What  is  its  form  and  color  ? 

Observe  its  general  "  make-up "  and  compare  with  the 
staminate  inflorescence  in  the  matters  of  bracts,  scales,  and 
scale  peculiarities.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the 
staminate  ?     Draw  natural  size. 

Flower.  Examine  an  individual  flower  (m).  Find  the 
scale  and  observe  that  it  bears  a  green,  oblong,  or  spindle- 
shaped  structure,  the  pistil.     Draw  a  flower  {m). 

Pistil.  Examine  a  pistil  (m)  and  {Ip).  Determine  the 
presence  or  absence  of  a  short  stalk  or  pedicel,  attaching  it 
to  the  axis  of  the  catkin.  Observe  the  enlarged  lower  part, 
the  ovary  or  ovulary,  often  hairy,  and  the  extreme  tip,  some- 
what enlarged,  the  stigma.  When  the  stigma  is  connected 
to  the  ovary  by  an  intervening  part,  commonly  smaller,  this 
connection  is  the  style.  Is  it  found  here  ?  Examine  the 
stigma  (Ip).  What  peculiarities  of  surface  do  you  find? 
Draw  the  pistil  (m)  and  {Ipj). 

Examine  a  ripened  pistil  (pod),  and  observe  the  tiny 
seeds  within.  What  is  attached  to  the  seeds  and  for  what 
purpose?  (Seeds  in  the  ovary  before  the  process  called 
fertilization  takes  place  are  called  ovules.) 

Pollination  and  fertilization.  To  produce  seed  in  the 
willow  or  any  other  flower  two  processes  are  necessary : 
pollination  and  fertilization.  Pollination  is  the  transfer  of 
the  pollen  from  the  anther  to  the  stigma.  It  is  a  general 
rule  among  flowers  that  the  pollen  is  carried  by  some  agency 
to  the  stigmas  belonging  to  flowers  of  another  plant  of  the 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  49 

same  kind,  cross-pollination.  From  your  observation  and 
reading  what  different  methods  or  agents  are  there  that  can 
accomplish  this  ?  Upon  what  agent  does  the  willow  de- 
pend ?     (See  staminate  study.) 

After  pollination  comes  fertilization.  The  pollen  grains  are 
lodged  in  some  manner  upon  the  stigma,  germinate  and  send 
the  growing  tube  seen  in  your  pollen  study  through  the 
style  into  the  cavity  of  the  ovary,  where  it  enters  one  of  the 
tiny  ovules  there  contained,  fuses  with  the  egg  cell,  and  a 
seed,  after  some  growth,  is  the  result. 

Comparative  work.  Compare,  if  possible,  cotton  wood  or 
poplar  flowers  with  those  of  the  willow  and  observe  the 
resemblances  and  differences. 

Written  work.  Write  careful  description  of  each  catkin, 
flower,  and  the  pollen. 

The  willow  family.  The  willow  is  the  type  of  the  icillow 
family,  consisting  of  common  shrubs  and  trees,  and  having, 
as  common  examples,  all  kinds  of  willows,  poplars,  cotton- 
wood,  and  "Carolina  poplar."  Of  what  value  are  any  of 
these  ? 

Applications.  (1)  Take  some  poplar  wood,  cut  up  into 
small  blocks,  and  soak  for  24  hours  in  10  %  sulphuric  acid. 
Now  by  means  of  a  heavy  hammer  crush  the  blocks  until 
thoroughly  pulped.  You  have  crudely  accomplished  one 
stage  in  paper  making  from  wood  (poplar  and  spruce). 

(2)  Take  a  number  of  willow  blocks,  place  in  any  small 
iron  dish  that  can  be  closed  tightly,  heat  red  hot  for  20 
minutes,  and  allow  to  cool.  Examine  the  wood.  You  have 
made  charcoal.     \Vhy  did  not  the  wood  burn  up  ? 

(3)  In  spring  place  several  willow  twigs  in  water  or  earth. 
Notice  the  roots  forming  on  the  willows  in  water;  also  that 
the  willows  in  the  earth  begin  growth.  These  plants  may 
be  easily  propagated  in  this  manner. 

(4)  If  possible,  observe  the  action  of  bees  around  stami- 
nate willows.     What  do  they  obtain  from  the  flowers  ? 


50  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

2.    The  Hazel 

Statement.  The  Hazel  is  a  member  of  the  Birch  family 
and  is  an  easily  obtained  shrub  growing  abundantly  in 
thickets.  It  is  in  bloom  about  the  time  of  the  willow. 
In  this  shrub  the  flowers  are  not  borne  on  separate  plants 
(dioecious),  but  both  kinds  are  found  on  different  parts  of 
the  same  plant  {monrjecious). 

Staminate  catkins.  Examine  the  staminate  catkin  and 
observe  its  form,  color,  and  position  on  the  branch ;  also  the 
separate  scales,  sporophylls,  that  make  up  the  catkin.  Draw 
a  catkin  natural  size. 

Examine  a  single  scale  (?n)  and  find  the  stamens.  How 
many  are  there?  Plow  do  they  compare  with  the  willow 
stamens  in  size  and  parts  ?  Draw  a  single  scale  with  its 
stamens  (in). 

Examine  the  pollen  Qip)  and  sketch. 

Pistillate  flowers.  Look  along  the  twig  for  small  red 
clusters  of  pistillate  flowers.  How  are  they  surrounded  ? 
Examine  (m)  the  pistils  and  stigmas. 

Sketch  a  pistillate  cluster  (m). 

Dissect  a  cluster  and  examine  a  single  flower  (m)  or  (Jp). 
Try  to  determine  its  parts.     Sketch. 

Other  work.  Recall,  if  you  have  seen  them,  the  full-grown 
hazelnuts  in  their  "shucks"  that  are  the  result  of  the 
growth,  after  fertilization,  of  these  pistillate  flowers.  Oak, 
chestnuts,  and  various  other  trees  have  similar  flower  ar- 
rangements, and  all  belong  to  two  closely  related  families, 
the  Birch  and  the  Beech.  What  useful  trees  are  found  here  ? 
How  many  kinds  of  oaks  do  you  know  ?  When  does  the 
oak  blossom  ?     How  long  does  it  take  an  oak  acorn  to  ripen  ? 

Final  statement.  The  willow,  hazel,  and  many  related 
forms  belong  to  some  lower  orders  of  dicotyledons,  having 
one  or  both  kinds  of  flowers  in  catkins  or  aments  (another 
term  for  pussy).     All,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  spring 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  51 

bloomers  ;  have  inconspicuous  flowers.  What  agent  for  pol- 
lination, therefore,  do  these  trees  and  shrubs  require  ?  What 
advantage  is  the  early  date  of  blooming  ? 

Ten  important  trees  belonging  to  these  orders  are : 
(l)Oaks;  (2)  Chestnut;  (3)  Beech;  (4)  Birch;  (5)  Cot- 
tonwood; (6)  Osier;  (7)  Aspen;  (8)  Filbert;  (9)  Horn- 
beam;   (10)  She-oak.     What  economic  value  has  each? 

3.    The  Trillium  Species 

Species  available ;  habitat.  For  this  study  any  species  of 
trillium  is  equally  good,  but  for  the  reason  that  T.  recurva- 
tum,  or  the  bloody  butcher,  is  not  picked  for  its  blossoms, 
good  judgment  dictates  that  it  is  the  best  one  to  study, 
because  one  is  not  hastening  the  extermination  of  a  beautiful 
plant  by  so  doing.  It  may  be  commonly  found  blooming  in 
all  rich  woodlands  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States 
about  May  1.  A  few  complete  plants  should  be  procured  in 
addition  to  the  flowering  stems. 

The  plant.  Examine  the  whole  plant  and  observe  the 
thick  rhizome  from  which  the  flower  stalk  grows.  Where 
do  the  roots  grow  and  what  are  their  peculiarities  ? 
Find  an  apical  hud  immediately  at  the  base  of  the  ascend- 
ing stem. 

Study  the  erect  aerial  stem.  Observe  its  varying  color 
from  base  to  summit.  How  do  you  explain  it  ?  How  many 
leaves  does  it  bear?  Examine  the  leaves  for  shape,  size, 
color,  and  venation. 

What  is  the  position  of  the  flower  with  reference  to  the 
leaves  ?  Is  the  flower  with  a  stalk  {peduncle)  or  witliout 
(sessile)  ? 

Study  a  cross  section  of  the  stem  (m).  What  is  the  ar. 
rangement  of  the  tissues?  Is  the  stem  mono- or  dicotyle- 
donous in  structure?  Draw  the  whole  plant,  also  the  stem 
section  (?;i). 


52  REPRESENTATIVE    PLANTS 

The  flower  calyx.  Examine  the  flower  for  its  size,  color, 
and  position.  Stud}^  the  outer  (lower)  whorl  or  circle  of 
parts.  What  color  do  the  parts  have?  This  whorl  is  the 
calyx  and  its  parts  are  sepals.  How  many  of  these  are 
there  ?  Are  they  stalked  or  sessile  ?  What  is  their  shape  ? 
Examine  their  venation.  Where  are  they  found  in  the 
unopened  bud,  and  what  seems  to  be  their  function  ?  Draw 
a  sepal. 

Corolla.  Examine  the  whorl  next  within  (above)  the 
sepals.  What  color  has  this  whorl  and  into  how  many 
parts  is  it  divided  ?  This  is  the  corolla  and  the  parts  are 
petals.  Study  a  petal  and  its  shape,  direction  of  growth, 
and  venation.     Draw  a  petal. 

Stamens.  Next  within  (above)  the  petals  are  a  number  of 
oblong  or  linear  structures.  How  many  are  there,  and  what 
is  their  color  ?  These  are  stamens.  Find  the  two  parts 
named  under  the  willow.  Investigate  their  exact  position 
and  discover  if  they  are  in  one  or  tiuo  rows.  Draw  a 
stamen,  two  views  to  show  its  exact  form  (face  and  side 
view). 

Pistil.  Study  the  central  structure,  pistil,  and  find  its 
parts.  (See  willow.)  What  is  its  color  and  shape  ?  Draw 
a  pistil,  side  and  top  views. 

Details  of  structure.  Examine  an  anther  on  the  concave 
face  (m)  and  observe  two  lines  of  yellow.  Examine  a  cross 
section  of  the  anther  (Ip)  and  see  that  these  lines  really 
are  pollen  sacs  or  microsporaiigia.  Make  drawings  showing 
both  the  above  features.  In  the  stamen  section,  look  for 
the  cell  structure.  Compare  it  to  a  leaf  section.  The 
stamen  is  really  a  sjxjrophi/ll  or  modified  leaf. 

Study  the  pollen  (//))  or  (hp).  What  is  the  color  and  form  ? 
Draw  several  pollen  cells. 

Examine  the  stigmatic  surface  of  the  pistil  (m),  for  any 
peculiarities  observable.  Draw,  if  possible  (i.e.,  not  too 
complex  or  difficult). 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  53 

Study  a  cross  section  of  the  ovary.  Into  how  many  com- 
partments (cells)  is  it  divided?  What  do  you  observe  in 
each  cell  ?  These  structures  are  ovules.  Examine  very 
carefully  and  determine,  if  possible,  their  point  of  attach- 
ment (placenta)  to  the  ovary.  It  may  be  on  a  central  axis 
(axial),  or  on  the  ovary  wall  (parietal). 

These  ovules  are  really  megasporcuKjia,  each  containing 
one  megaspore.  The  ovules  eventually  become  seeds  by  a 
process  called  fertilization.  Look  this  subject  up  in  your 
textbook  and  refer  back  to  the  willow.  Draw  a  cross 
section  of  the  ovary  (m),  naming  all  the  parts.  If  the  ovary 
walls  are,  as  is  usually  considered  the  fact,  made  up  of 
peculiarly  modified  leaves  (carpels),  how  many  can  you 
decide  there  are  in  the  trillium  ?  Where  are  the  ovules 
attached  with  reference  to  the  leaf  margins  or  midribs  ? 

Lily  family.  The  trillium  is  an  example  of  the  lily 
family,  which  contains  many  showy  or  useful  plants,  as 
the  tulip,  hyacinth,  lilies,  onions,  etc.,  and  is  one  of  the 
large  families  of  monocotyledons.  Some  authors  divide  the 
family  into  several  smaller  families,  in  which  case  the  Tril- 
lium is  placed  in  either  the  Lily  of  the  Valley  or  the 
Trillium  Family. 

Practical  work.  The  cultivation  of  the  Bermuda,  Spanish, 
or  other  onions  for  the  mature  bulbs,  and  the  immense 
amount  of  green  onions  grown,  show  the  importance  of  this 
famil}^  as  a  vegetable  producer.  Leeks,  garlic,  chives,  and 
shallots  are  other  related  forms. 

Asparagus  is  largely  grown  for  commercial  purposes,  to 
be  used  fresh  or  canned. 

In  certain  regions  tulips,  Bermuda  lilies,  and  hyacinths 
are  grown  in  immense  numbers  to  supply  the  demand  for 
the  flowering  bulbs. 

A  large  number  of  species  are  grown  by  florists  and  in 
home  gardens.     A  few  are  valuable  in  medicine. 

An  onion  venture.     A  young  man   planted  one  acre  of 


54  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

rich  land  (rent  J? 25  per  year)  to  commercial  onions,  paying 
also  $15  for  seed  and  $100  for  labor.  The  rows  were 
16  in.  apart,  and  he  harvested  three  large  spherical  onions, 
3  in.  in  diameter  from  every  foot  of  the  row.  He  sold  his 
crop  for  $1  per  bushel.  AVhat  was  his  approximate  net 
return  for  the  venture  ? 


4.    The  Erythronium,  Do(t-tooth  "  Violet  "  or  Adder's 
Tongue,  (a  Typical  "  Lily  ") 

Where  found.  The  Dog-tooth  ''Violets"  are  common 
l)lants  in  moist  woodhmds,  particularly  near  streams,  and  are 
beautiful  types  of  the  great  Lily  family  and  are  introduced 
to  familiarize  the  student  further  with  this  noted  plant  group. 

The  plant.  Examine  an  entire  plant  and  especially  the 
part  that  grows  below  the  surface.  What  name  do  you 
apply  to  this  ?  Study  the  leaves  as  to  their  shape,  number, 
color,  and  venation.  Parallel  venation  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  monocotyledons. 

Observe  that  the  flower  is  borne  on  a  naked  stalk  or  scape. 
What  is  the  color  and  what  the  position  of  the  flower  (erect 
or  nodding)  ? 

Draw  the  entire  plant  in  such  a  position  as  to  show  the 
leaves  and  the  parts  of  the  flower. 

Flower.  Examine  the  flower  and  determine  the  four 
kinds  of  structures  named  under  the  Trillium. 

How  do  these  parts  compare  in  number  and  color  with 
the  similar  named  part  of  that  plant  ?  Observe  that  in  both 
Trillium  and  Erythronium  the  ovary  stands  above  the 
insertion  of  the  sepals  on  the  top  of  the  flower  stalk  or 
pedun-cle.  (This  point  is  the  receptacle.)  Such  a  position  for 
the  ovary  is  designated  as  ovary  superior.  In  this  flower 
how  can  you  distinguish  the  sepals  from  the  petals  ?  Com- 
pare with  a  tulip.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  flower,  by  represent- 
ing the  petals  and  sepals  by  curved  lines,  the  stamens  by 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  55 

solid  round  spots,  and  the  pistil  by  .a  ring  properly  divided 
to  show  the  number  of  cells  in  the  ovary.  Be  sure  to  have 
each  part  properly  located  with  reference  to  the  adjacent 
structures. 

This  is  called  Sifloiver  plan  or  diagram. 

Characters  of  Lily  family.  See  if  your  study  of  these 
examples  of  the  Lily  family  agrees  with  the  following 
characterization  :  — 

The  Lily  family  is  monocotyledonous,  coinmonly  has  bulbs 
or  rhizomes,  flowers  with  three  sepals  and  three  petals, 
usually  similarly  colored  (often  called  the  perianth),  six 
stamens  in  two  rows,  a  single  superior  ovary  having  three 
stigmas  and  cells.  You  ought  to  consult  Gray's  "Manual 
of  Botany,"  and  familiarize  yourself  with  the  characteriza- 
tions of  the  families  to  which  the  plants  you  study  belong. 

Learn  also,  by  continuous  practice,  how  to  analyze  a  flower, 
or  determine  its  name  by  a  "  key." 

The  study  of  other  forms  of  the  Lily  or  other  monocotyle- 
donous families  may  be  undertaken,  following  the  same 
guides  as  used  in  Trillium  and  Erythronium. 

5.   Demoxstratiox  of  ax  Orchid  —  The  Lady  Slippers 
(Cypripedium)^ 

Statement.  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  orchids  for  individ- 
ual class  work  because  of  the  increasing  scarcity  of  this 
beautiful  group  and  the  consequent  danger  of  helping  on 
their  extermination.  As  the  most  specialized  of  the  mono- 
cotyledons, however,  they  ought  to  receive  attention  by  a 
demonstration  before  the  class,  dwelling  in  particular  on 
their  adaptation  to  insect  pollination. 

The  plant.  The  leafy  stem  crowded  from  base  to  flower 
with  large  parallel-veined  leaves  and  arising  from  a  peculiar 

1  Tlie  Iris  is  equally  good,  and  may  be  used  with  necessary  changes 
in  wording. 


66  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

cluster  of  fleshy   roots   and  topped  by   the   odd   flower  or 
flowers. 

The  flower.  The  peculiarly  arranged  and  colored  flower 
parts :  — 

1.  The  three  sepals,  two  united. 

2.  The  three  petals,  one  very  irregular,  called  the  "  lip." 

3.  The  two  fertile  and  the  one  sterile  stamens,  with 
pollen  masses. 

4.  The  stigmatic  surface. 

5.  The  long  inferior  ovary,  with  myriads  of  seeds. 

Plan  for  cross-pollination  by  insects.  The  special  adapta- 
tion of  the  lip  and  the  relative  position  of  the  pollen  masses 
and  stigmatic  surface  to  insure  cross-fertilization  by  bees. 

Orchid  family.  The  characterization  of  the  Orchid  family 
may  be  inserted  to  show  the  highest  type  of  the  monocoty- 
ledons :  (a)  root  commonly  fleshy,  or,  in  many  cases,  epi- 
phytic, (with  air  roots) ;  (6)  leaves  typically  parallel  veined, 
occasionally  leafless,  and  root  parasitic ;  (c)  flowers  three- 
parted  and  very  irregular,  the  third  petal  often  variously 
modified ;  (d)  stamens,  one,  two,  or  three ;  (e)  pistil,  one 
with  inferior  ovary  containing  myriads  of  small  seeds. 

Use.  Often  highly  valued  for  ornament,  but  with  very 
few  useful  forms ;  vanilla  is  one  of  the  most  important. 
Obtain,  if  possible,  a  vanilla  bean,  break  up  into  small 
fragments,  place  in  a  large  bottle,  and  cover  with  50  % 
alcohol.  Stopper  and  set  aside  for  two  weeks.  Do  the 
same  with  some  tonka  beans.  Compare  the  odor  and  taste. 
Cheap  vanillas  are  either  very  often  adulterated,  or  made 
from  other  substances  as  coniferin  and  oil  of  cloves. 

6.  Apetalous  Flowers  of  the  Crowfoot  Family 

Kinds  available  with  habitats.  The  Marsh  Marigold, 
Anemones,  and  Hepaticas  are  all  suitable  flowers  for  this 
study,  and  are  all  good  types  of  those  crowfoot  representa- 
tives that  are  lacking  in  petals  (apetalous).     Each  grows  in 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  57 

a  habitat  peculiar  to  itself.  Find  them  where  they  grow  if 
possible. 

The  plant.  Examine  the  entire  plant,  observing  the  roots, 
leaves,  general  habit  of  the  stem,  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers,  singly  or  in  clusters  (inflorescence).  The  ar- 
rangement may  be  solitary,  in  racemes,  corymbs,  panicles, 
umbels,  not  easily  explained  by  word  alone,  but  plainly  un- 
derstood by  diagram  and  actual  specimens.  Determine  for 
the  plant  at  hand  what  the  inflorescence  may  be,  after  con- 
sulting diagrams  made  by  the  instructor. 

Flower.  Study  the  flower.  There  is  but  one  whorl  of 
leaf  like  colored  parts  or  sepals,  the  petals  being  absent. 
Determine  their  color  and  number.  Examine  the  stamens. 
How  many  are  there  and  how  are. they  arranged?  Study 
the  central  pistils.  How  many  are  there  ?  Observe  that  all 
the  parts  named  are  borne  directly  upon  the  receptacle. 
Are  the  ovaries  superior  or  inferior? 

Draw  a  portion  of  the  plant  with  leaves  and  flowers;  also 
make  a  plan  of  the  flower. 

Description.  Describe  carefully,  and  do  the  same  for  each 
flower  hereafter  studied  when  such  description  is  called  for. 
In  flowers  without  petals,  having  a  well-developed  calyx, 
this  circle  is  usually  colored  like  a  corolla.  What  explanar 
tion  can  you  give  ? 

Crowfoot  family,  value.  The  Crowfoot  family  contains 
many  showy  or  favorite  garden  flowers,  as  columbines, 
anemones,  peonies,  larkspurs,  monkshoods,  clematis,  Christ- 
mas rose,  and  others,  and  some  very  valuable  medicinal 
plants,  as  aconite  (monkshood),  larkspur,  hydrastis,  actaea, 
etc. 

7.     POLYPETALOUS    (CHORIPETALOUS)    FlOWERS    OF    THE 

Crowfoot    Family 
Where  found.    Polypetalous  types  of  the  Crowfoot  family 
such  as   ImttPrcups  may  always  be  obtained  in  quantity  for 


58  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

study,  and  it  matters  not  materially  which  variety  is  used. 
They  grow  in  woods  and  thickets,  open  damp  places,  or  on 
dry  open  knolls  and  prairies.  ^Many  species  of  this  family, 
such  as  the  buttercup,  cowslip,  windflower,  anemone,  and 
hepatica,  are  the  most  common  and  highly  prized  wild  flowers 
of  early  spring.  All  are  similar  and  show  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  the  Crowfoot  family  in  a  marked  degree. 

Characters  of  family.  Chiefly  herbs  with  divided  leaves : 
four  or  usually  five  parted  flowers  (that  is,  sepals  and 
petals  of  that  number)  ;  many  stamens ;  several  or  many 
pistils  ;  all  parts  borne  on  the  receptacle ;  often  apetalous. 

Plant  and  flowers.  Examine  as  usual  the  whole  plant  and 
observe  its  peculiarities.  Are  the  leaves  divided  or  not  ? 
How  many  sepals  and  petals  and  what  colors  are  they? 
Sepals  of  buttercups  often  fall  away  early  (fugacious),  and 
the  flower  then  may  appear  apetalous.  Be  careful  not  to 
make  a  mistake  here.  Study  the  number  and  arrangement 
of  the  stamens  and  pistils  and  observe  their  relation  to  the 
receptacle. 

Make  the  following  drawings:  (a)  stem-bearing  leaf  and 
flowers ;  (b)  a  single  flower,  side  and  face  view ;  (c)  a 
stamen  and  a  pistil  (m)  ;  (d)  plan  of  the  flower. 

List.  Name  all  the  garden  flowers  you  know  that  belong 
to  this  family ;  also  some  medicines  made  from  plants  of 
the  same  group. 

How  many  kinds  of  buttercups  or  crowfoots  do  you  know  ? 
What  reputation  has  the  buttercup  among  eastern  dairy 
farmers  ?  What  has  happened  when  a  buttercup  becomes 
double  ?  What  is  a  "  double "  flower,  and  are  any  ever 
found  in  a  wild  state  ? 

8.      POLYPETALOUS    ElOWERS    OF    THE    MuSTARD    FamILT 

Kinds  of  and  where  found.  Shepherd^ s-purse,  spring  cress, 
mustard,  candytuft,  or  other  forms  may  be  used.  The  spring 
(white   or   purple)  cresses   of   moist  woodlands   and    bogs 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  59 

are  especially  good  plants  for  study,  as  they  may  commonly 
be  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  early  spring  (April  1- 
May  15). 

Mustard  family  characters.  The  Mustard  family  has  these 
characteristics :  (a)  herbs  with  spicy  juice ;  (b)  flowers 
commonly  in  racemes ;  (c)  four  sepals  and  petals ;  (d)  six 
stamens;    (e)  one  pistil;  (/)  in  fruit  a  pod,  long  or  short. 

The  plant  and  flowers.  Study  the  plant  for  its  roots, 
leaves,  and  inflorescence.  Examine  the  flower  and  deter- 
mine the  number  and  color  of  each  group  of  parts.  Com- 
pare with  characterization  given  above.  Examine  in 
particular  the  stamens.  Are  the  six  all  of  one  pattern,  or 
do  you  find  a  difference  in  size  and  length  ? 

Are  the  flowers  especially  attractive  to  insects  on  account 
of  their  size,  color,  or  odor,  or  may  these  plants  depend  on 
wind  for  pollination  ? 

Draw  a  flowering  branch,  a  single  flower,  and  the  flower 
plan. 

Uses  of  family.  Name  a  number  of  garden  flowers  belong- 
ing to  this  family,  and  also  as  many  vegetables  you  find 
that  belong  here.  Taste  the  leaves,  and  observe  that  many 
plants  of  the  Mustard  family  abound  in  a  hot,  spicy  juice. 
Name  some  that  have  this  quality. 

If  you  know  any  market  gardens,  what  per  cent  of  their 
land  area  is  occupied  by  vegetables  of  this  family  ? 

If  cabbages  average  6  in.  in  diameter,  and  are  2  ft.  apart 
each  way,  how  many  would  an  acre  produce  ?  At  5  ^  a  head, 
what  would  they  be  worth  ? 

Test  a  cabbage  for  its  food  value.  Estimate  in  particular 
the  amount  of  water  it  contains.  Are  they  wholesome  or  not  ? 

Where  is  the  native  home  of  these  Mustard  family  vegeta- 
bles ?  What  is  the  life  duration  of  most  of  them  ?  Where 
do  they  store  their  excess  of  food  material  ? 

Compare  cabbage,  turnip,  and  kohl-rabi  seed  with  mus- 
tard.    Examine  radish  seed. 


60  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Why  does  grated  horse  radish  lose  in  strength  in  stand- 
ing ?  What  do  radishes  bring  in  " returns"  to  the  producer? 
How  are  radishes  regarded  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  ? 


9.       POLYPETALOUS    FlOWERS    OF    THE    RoSE    FAMILY 

Kinds  and  place  of  growth.  Various  forms  of  the  poten- 
tillas,  often  called  "  yellow  strawberries,"  or  five-fingers 
strawberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  the  loild  roses 
are  obtainable  at  the  season,  early  June,  when  this  study 
is  contemplated.  Observe,  in  every  case,  if  you  gather  the 
flowers,  where  they  flourish  most  luxuriantly  ? 

Plants  and  flowers.  Observe  any  peculiarities  about  the 
plants,  as  to  habit  of  growth,  stem  and  leaf,  and,  in  particu- 
lar, the  number  of  petals,  stamens,  and  pistils,  and  determine 
whether  the  different  parts  are  borne  on  the  receptacle  (as 
in  buttercups,  which  these  flowers  often  resemble)  or  that 
some  different  arrangement  exists.  What  relation  exists 
between  the  calyx  and  the  ovary  ?  Determine  the  form  of 
the  inflorescence.  Make  a  drawing  of  an  individual  flower 
and  flower  plan  and  diagram  of  the  inflorescence. 

Plants  of  this  family  with  use.  Examine  all  possible  ref- 
erence books  and  make  a  list  of  plants  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment and  for  use  that  belong  to  the  Rose  family.  The 
number  of  "  small  fruits  "  furnished  by  this  family  is  very 
large,  and  they  are  the  chief  source  of  the  commercial  value 
of  the  "  berry  "  crop  supplied  to  the  great  city  markets. 

Compare  wild  berries  with  the  cultivated  kinds  and  note 
the  improvements  brought  about  by  cultivation. 

For  the  student  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States, 
there  is  no  more  appropriate  place  to  study  how  new  or 
better  fruits  are  produced  than  in  connection  with  the  fruits 
of  this  family.  Every  pupil  whose  home  has  a  fruit  garden, 
or  even  vacant  land,  is  able,  if  he  so  desires,  to  do  some- 
thing along  these  lines. 


I 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  61 

Grafting  is  the  common  method  of  improving  the  varieties 
of  apples,  pears,  phims,  cherries,  and  other  fruits.  It  is 
now  commonly  combined  with  selected  seedling  production. 
The  method  of  operation  is :  first,  to  plant  large  numbers 
of  seeds  procured  from  choice,  vigorous,  and  hardy  apples 
(or  other  fruit),  and  when  old  enough,  graft  the  choice  seed- 
lings with  the  desired  varieties,  the  result  being  a  combina- 
tion of  inherited  and  acquired  qualities.  (The  method  of 
grafting  may  be  given  by  the  instructor.) 

Budding,  different  in  operative  procedure,  has  the  same 
ends  obtained  by  similar  methods. 

Selection  of  seedlings  is  a  prolific  method  of  producing 
new  varieties.  ]\Iany  plants,  apples,  pears,  plums,  peaches, 
berries,  potatoes,  etc.,  do  not  reproduce  "true"  from  seed. 
The  seedlings  will  seldom  resemble  the  parent  in  all  points. 
Hence  by  careful  selections  from  great  numbers  of  choice 
seedlings,  fine  plants  may  now  and  then  be  found,  superior 
in  all  particulars.  In  this  manner  many  line  fruit  varieties 
have  originated. 

The  principles  of  pruning  may  be  learned  by  demonstra- 
tion at  the  hands  of  the  instructor. 


10.   Flowers  of  the  Apple  Family  or  Subfamily  — 
Pears,  Apples,  Crahs,  and  Hawtiiorxs 

The  trees.  Examine,  if  possible,  the  trees  as  they  grow 
in  the  orchard  or  occur  wild  in  woodlands  and  observe  in 
particular  their  size  and  form,  also  the  tendency  to  thorns 
that  most  forms  show,  more  especially  wild  or  seedling 
varieties.  Discover  the  effect  that  cultivation  has  on  the 
thorny  condition  of  the  trees,  also  upon  the  size  and  condi- 
tion of  the  fruit. 

Flowers.  Fxamiue  a  Hower  cluster.  What  is  the  inflo- 
rescence ?  What  advantage  is  there  in  having  several  flow- 
ers near  each  other  in  the  same  cluster?     Look  at  a  flower. 


62  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

In  what  ways  does  it  resemble  and  how  does  it  differ  from 
the  flowers  of  the  last  exercise  ?  What  do  you  find  regard- 
ing the  odor?  In  general,  what  may  the  odor  of  flowers 
mean  ?  With  reference  to  the  appearance  of  the  leaves, 
when  do  apples  bloom  ?  After  reading  the  characteristics 
of  the  Rose  family,  how  would  you  characterize  this  fam- 
ily ?  (It  is  often  combined  with  the  Rose  as  one  of  the 
subfamilies.)  Draw  a  flower,  a  flower  plan,  and  a  diagram 
of  the  inflorescence. 

Practical  uses.  Find  the  various  uses  of  these  trees. 
What  is  a  quince  ?  How  do  pears  differ  from  apples  in 
bloom  and  fruit?  What  are  the  chief  commercial  kinds 
of  apples  ?  Why  do  apples  bloom,  as  a  rule,  every 
other  year?  Where  is  the  native  home  of  each  of  these 
fruits  ?  How  are  apples  kept  from  one  season  to  another  ? 
Recall  this  family  when  you  study  fruits,  especially  the 
pome. 

Why  do  hawthorns,  as  a  rule,  have  such  disagreeably 
scented  flowers  ?  Do  insects  frequent  the  blooming  trees, 
and  if  so,  what  kinds  ?  When  do  these  trees  bloom 
with  reference  to  the  high  tide  of  bees,  butterflies,  and 
flies?  What  use  has  the  hawthorn  in  ornamental  plant- 
ing? 

What  result  would  come  from  grafting  an  apple  on  a 
hawthorn  or  wild  crab?  What  is  meant  by  "stock" 
for  grafting  ?  How  may  tender  fruits  be  made  more 
hardy  ? 

Learn  the  characteristics  of  the  best  varieties  of  apples 
from  the  actual  specimens  ? 

What  is  evaporated  fruit  ?  What  is  cider  ?  Peaches, 
pears,  etc.  are  canned.     Why  not  apples  ? 

How  long  is  required  for  apples  to  bear  fruit  from  the 
seed  ?  What  returns  do  apples  and  kindred  fruits  give  to 
the  grower  ?  Where  are  the  most  important  apple  growing 
regions  of  the  United  States  ? 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  63 

11.    Flowers   of  the  Prune  Family  or    Subfamilv  — 

Plums,  Peaches,  Apricots,  and  Cherries 

(Stone  Fruits) 

The  trees.  Which  of  these  trees  liave  you  seen  ,!:^rowing  ? 
How  can  you  tell  the  fruits  from  each  other  ?  AVhat  two 
main  forms  of  inflorescence  have  cherries  ?  When  with 
reference  to  the  leaf  appearance  do  cherries  and  i)luins 
bloom  ?  What  general  name  is  applied  to  these  fruits  ? 
What  kinds  are  wild  in  the  United  States  and  in  your  own 
vicinity  ? 

Flowers.  Examine  the  flowers  in  the  same  manner  that 
you  did  the  apple.  How  do  these  flowers  differ  from  apple 
flowers  and  also  from  other  flowers  of  the  Rose  family  ? 
(They  are  commonly  grouped,  along  with  apples,  etc.,  in 
that  family.)     ^lake  drawings  as  in  the  last  exercise. 

Characterize  the  family  by  comparison  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Kose  and  the  Pear  families. 

Uses.  What  uses  have  these  trees  and  shrubs  ?  Why 
are  peach  and  cherry  pits  unwholesome  ?  How  are  cherries 
regarded  by  the  Japanese  ?  How  does  an  almond  differ 
from  a  peach  ?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  fruits  furnished  by 
this  family  which  are  useful  to  man.  What  are  prunes  ? 
What  are  prunelles  ?  Discover  the  use  of  the  wood  of  the 
different  kinds. 

AVhat  has  ]\[r.  Burbank  done  to  improve  the  fruits  of  this 
family  ? 

Where  are  the  peach,  prune,  apricot,  and  cherry  growing 
centers  in  the  United  States  ? 

Which  require  more  room,  cherry  or  apple  trees  ? 

Diseases.  Apples,  and  in  fact  all  the  fruits  named  in  this 
lesson  and  the  last,  are  subject  to  many  insect  and  fungous 
diseases.  What  damage  is  caused  ?  What  means  are  suc- 
cessful in  preventing  these  troubles  ?  AVhat  are  some  of 
the    principles    of    "  sprayin;j; "  ?      Why    ought     spraying 


64  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

to  be  practiced  by   every  one   owning   a   fruit   garden    or 
orchard  ? 

12.    Flowers    of    the    Pea    Family   (Irregular    Poly- 

PETALOUS  Forms)  —  Peas,  Clovers,  Sweet 

Clovers,  Lupines,  Locusts 

General  statement.  The  Pea  family  is  an  immense  one 
(7000  species),  and  many  kinds  may  be  found  in  your  vicin- 
ity, but  only  a  few  bloom  before  the  middle  of  June.  Read 
the  family  characterization  and  keep  it  in  mind  while 
studying  the  flowers  obtainable. 

Flowers.  Observe  the  form  of  the  inflorescence  and  the 
size,  color,  and  odor  of  the  flowers.  Examine  the  flower 
parts  for  number  and  for  relationship  to  each  other  and  to 
the  receptacle.  In  particular,  compare  the  petals  to  each 
other  as  to  shape.  What  do  you  find  ?  Flowers  in  which 
the  parts  of  the  same  whorl  are  unlike  in  shape  are  irregu- 
lar. Observe  that  all  the  kinds  you  have  access  to  are 
similar  in  general  form  to  a  pea  flower.  The  different  parts 
have  received  special  names.  The  large  upper  petal  is 
the  banner,  the  side  petals  are  tvings,  and  the  two  united 
lower  petals  are  the  keel. 

Carefully  examine  the  stamens,  count  them,  and  find  out 
how  they  are  connected  to  each  other. 

Look  up  the  terms  monadelphous  and  cUadelphous.  Where 
are  the  stamens  situated?  Look  for  the  pistil.  How  is  it 
related  to  the  stamens  ?  Are  anthers  and  stigma  in  such 
relative  position  as  to  permit  pollen  to  pass  readily  to  the 
stigma?     In  fruit,  what  does  the  pistil  become? 

Carefully  draw  plan  of  inflorescence  and  of  a  single 
flower,  also  side  and  face  views  of  flower  and  each  kind  of 
petal,  enlarged. 

Pollination.  Flowers  constructed  according  to  the  pea 
type  are  especially  adapted  to  pollination  by  insects.  The 
color,  odor,  and  inflorescence,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  shape 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


65 


of  the  flower  and  the  relation  of  all  its  parts,  adapt  these 
flowers  for  such  a  method. 

Field  observation.  If  possible,  examine  blooming  clover- 
plants  for  insect  visitors,  and  observe  how  they  proceed  in 
order  to  obtain  the  nectar.  Remove  the  flowers  from  a  fresh 
red-clover  head  and  draw  out  the  nectar  by  suction.  Com- 
pare the  bees  that  frequent  the  red  and  white  clovers. 
Are  they  the  same  kinds  ?  Recall  that  the  irregular  flowers 
of  the  orchid  were  also  special  contrivances  for  securing  in- 
sect pollination.  What  would  you  infer  about  irregular 
flowers  in  general  ? 

Table.  Make  a  table  of  flowers  of  the  Pea  family  which 
you  are  able  to  find  from  any  sources,  using  the  following 
form  :  — 


Name 


Inkloui 

CENCE 


Flowkk 

(.01,0  It 


F  LOWER 

Size 


Where 
Native 


Use 


Value  as  soil  restorer.  The  Pea  family  (Leguminosce  is 
the  technical  name)  is  a  remarkable  one  in  many  ways,  but 
in  no  way  more  so  than  in  the  peculiar  sfpnbiotic  relation 
that  all  members  have  with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria.  (See 
Bacteria  study.) 

If  in  season,  pull  or  rather  dig  up  a  red  clover,  sweet 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  white  clover;  wash  all  the  dirt  from  the 
roots  and  examine  the  numerous  tubercles  caused  by  the 
bacteria.  A  chemical  test  will  show  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  these  swellings. 

Nitrogen  is  a  powerful  plant  tonic,  producing  great 
activity  in  purely  vegetative  (growth)  work.  The  soil  may 
obtain  this  plant  food  in  four  ways  :  — 


66 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


1.  Naturally,  by  small  amounts  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
combining  in  the  ground  with  bases  to  produce  nitrates. 

2.  Naturally,  by  the  decay  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria 
nodules ;  often  introduced  artificially  by  sowing  clover, 
alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  etc. 

3.  Artificially,  by  animal  waste,  as  manures. 

4.  Artificially,  by  the  introduction  of  nitrate  of  soda  as  a 
commercial  fertilizer. 

Of  these  methods  the  best  is  by  the  growth  of  the  legume 
plants  and  eventual  plowing  under.  This  adds  to  the  soil 
the  nitrogen  of  the  bacteria  nodules  and  humus  from  the 
decaying  plants. 

A  test  that  could  be  easily  carried  out,  if  the  pupil  has 
land  to  experiment  with,  is  to  take  four  plots  of  equal  size, 
side  by  side,  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4. 


Spade  them  all,  and  in  July  sow  on  No.  4  crimson  clover. 
Cover  No.  3  with  ordinary  stable  manure  about  Oct.  1.  Do 
not  touch  1  and  2.  The  following  spring  spade  all  the  plots 
and  plant  to  some  one  crop,  as  sweet  corn,  beets,  or  cabbage. 
Sow  carefully  and  evenly  over  No.  2  nitrate  of  soda  and 
powdered  earth  mixed  (at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  of  nitrate 
to  the  acre.)  Put  nothing  on  No.  1.  Compare  the  harvest 
on  each  plot  for  early  maturity,  quantity,  and  quality. 


13.    Flowers    of    the    Violet    Family    (Irregular)  — 
Violets  and  Pansies 

Plants  and  place  of  growth.      Plants  ought  to  be  obtained 
in  flower  and  also  when  the  fruit  is  well  advanced.     For 


A   MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  67 

flower  study  any  species  will  do,  but  for  the  deistogmnous 
flowers  the  common  blue  violets  are  particularly  suitable. 
They  abound  in  open  and  moist  woodlands. 

In  many  violets  all  the  leaves  arise  from  the  short  under- 
ground stem  (radical).  Other  violets  are  said  to  be  stemmed ; 
that  is,  have  stems  above  ground,  bearing  leaves.  In  both 
forms  the  flowers  are  on  slender  peduncles.  How  many  are 
there  to  each  peduncle  ? 

Flowers.  Examine  a  single  flower.  Is  it  regular  or  not? 
What  is  the  sepal  and  the  petal  number?  What  is  the 
common  petal  color?  Examine  carefully  the  lowermost 
petal  and  find  a  S2)ur  at  its  base.  After  drawing  side  and 
face  views  of  the  flower,  remove  the  petals  and  count  the 
stamens.  What  is  peculiar  about  all  the  anthers  and  the 
filaments  of  the  two  lowermost? 

Study  the  pistil.  Draw  the  flower,  flower  plan  and  one 
of  the  lowermost  stamens. 

Examine  a  plant  bearing  cleistogamous  flowers,  i.e. 
flowers  lacking  petals,  commonly  subterranean.  Determine 
the  flower  parts  and  notice  the  color.  Compare  the  seed 
number  in  the  capsules  produced  by  each  kind  of  flower. 
What  kinds  of  pollination  has  the  violet  ? 

Some  related  questions.  How  do  you  explain  the  remark- 
able variety  of  color  in  pansies  ? 

Some  other  plants  have  cleistogamous  flowers.  What 
ex])lanation  can  you  give  for  the  two  methods  of  reproduc- 
tion ?  What  seems  to  be  the  purpose  of  the  spur  in  flowers  ? 
Kecall  other  flowers  with  spurs. 


14.    Flowers  of  the  Highest  PoLYPETALyT:.      The  Car- 
rot Family  (Parsley)  —  Meadow  Parsnip, 
Sweet  Cicely,  Caraway 

The  plants.       Plants  of  the  Carrot  family  are  common, 
but  only  a  few  bloom  early  in  the  season.     The  characteris- 


68  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

tics  of  the  family  are  marked  and  ought  to  be  easily  dis- 
covered.    Many  of  the  species  are  poisonous. 

Observe  the  characteristic  inflorescence,  also  the  almost 
universal  presence  of  divided  leaves. 

Flowers.     Are  the  umbels  simple  or  compound? 

Observe  the  presence  or  absence  of  small  bracts  at  the 
base  of  the  primary  or  secondary  rays  of  umbel.  Which 
flowers  of  the  umbel  mature  the  earliest  ?  Study  the  in- 
dividual flower  and  observe  the  insignificant  calyx  and  the 
small  petals  of  the  corolla.  How  many  petals  are  there 
and  what  peculiarity  of  form  do  they  have  ? 

Look  at  the  stamens.  How  do  they  correspond  in  num- 
ber with  the  petals  ?  How  can  the  discrepancy  be  ex- 
plained ?  What  evidence  do  you  notice  for  any  special 
form  of  pollination  ? 

If  any  fruits  are  formed,  crush,  and  discover  whether  any 
odor  is  apparent  or  not. 

Draw  a  diagram  of  the  inflorescence,  a  single  flower  (in), 
and  the  flower  plan. 

Uses.  Look  up  the  uses  of  plants  of  this  family.  What 
vegetables  are  found  here  ?  What  are  caraway,  dill,  anise, 
and  coriander  ?  Why  is  a  wild  parsnip  poisonous  and  the 
garden  form  harmless?  Why  will  frost  kill  our  garden 
carrot  and  yet  not  hurt  the  wild  carrot  (the  same  species)? 
How  did  this  plant  ever  become  a  weed,  or  was  the  vegeta- 
ble produced  from  the  weed  form  ?  Which  is  the  reasonable 
theory  ? 

Test  carrots,  parsnips,  celery,  and  celeriac  for  food  value. 

15.    Shrubs  and  Trees  of  the  Dogwood  Family  — 
Dogwoods  (Cornel  Species) 

Plant  habit  and  habitat.  These  are  common  shrubs  and 
small  trees  of  woodland,  thicket,  and  swamp.  If  you  are 
able  to  study  them  as  they  grow,  do  so  and  observe  any 


i 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  69 

peculiar  feature  of  form  and  foliage,  and  also  of  bark  color. 
Taste  the  bark. 

The  iutiorescence  is  one  of  the  type  forms.  What  is  it? 
What  is  the  size  of  the  separjite  tlowers  ?  (Some  kinds 
have  the  flowers  in  heads,  surrounded  by  Umje  colored  bracts, 
often  mistaken  for  the  flower.) 

Flower.  Study  the  flower  parts.  What  do  you  observe 
about  the  se})als  ?  How  are  the  petals  arranged  in  tlie  bud  ? 
Can  you  think  of  any  advantages  to  the  i)lant  in  having  so 
many  small  flowers  clustered  ?  Make  drawings  showing  a 
diagram  of  inflorescence,  a  flower,  and  flower  plan. 

Use.  Read  about  the  Black  Gum  tree  or  Tupelo;  also 
find  out  what  you  can  about  ''  Kinnikinik  "  also  the  use  of 
these  trees  as  ornamental  forms  for  parks  and  lawns. 
What  particular  value  have  the  Siberian  and  the  native  red 
dogwood  as  ornamental  trees  ?  If  possible,  look  carefully 
at  the  common  flowering  dogwood  flower,  with  its  large 
white  or  pink  bracts  looking  like  petals  (petaloid  bracts). 
The  ti-ue  flowers  are  insignificant.  What  possible  advan- 
tage is  such  a  scheme  ?  What  use  has  the  wood  of  this 
tree? 

IG.     Flowers,    with     United     Petals    (Gamopetalous, 

Sympetalous)  of  the  Primrose   Family  — 

THE  Shooting  Star 

The  plant  habitat.  This  plant  is  very  common  in  prairie 
regions,  often  almost  completely  taking  possession  of  the 
ground.  In  many  places  it  is  found  on  the  grassy  "brows" 
of  bluffs  and  cliffs.  Study  it  in  its  place  of  growth,  if  con- 
venient. 

What  leaf  arrangement  has  this  plant  ?  What  is  the 
inflorescence  ?  What  name  do  you  apply  to  the  common 
flower  stalk?  What  })osition  have  the  flowers?  What 
position  have  the  buds  ? 

Flower.    l^]xamine    flowers    as    to    color,   form,  and  parts. 


70  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

How  many  divisions  on  each  whorl  ?  Observe  carefully 
the  corolla.  How  are  the  petals  related  to  each  other? 
Flowers  of  this  character  with  the  petals  more  or  less  in 
one  j)iece  are  gamopetalous  or  symiietalous.  In  what  direc- 
tion do  the  petals  point  ?  Look  at  the  stamens.  Upon 
what  are  they  borne  ?  AVhat  i)ositions  do  they  occupy  with 
reference  to  the  petal  lobes  ? 

Draw  a  diagram  of  the  inflorescence  and  the  flower  plan 
and  a  side  view  of  the  flower. 

Read  in  reference  books  the  subject,  "  Primrose,"  particu- 
larly the  English  forms.     What  are  cowslips  ? 

Prairies.  What  are  prairies  ?  How  is  their  presence 
exjdained?  What  part  of  the  United  States  is  largely 
prairie  ?  Why  did  the  Indian  and  the  old  settler  burn  the 
prairie  ?  When  was  it  done,  and  what  effect  had  this  on 
plant  life  ?  Why  do  prairie  flowers  differ  so  markedly  from 
woodland  species.  If  possible,  compare  the  wood  phlox  and 
the  prairie  phlox,  or  compare  Other  related  species  of  the 
two  localities  or  environments.  What  is  meant  by  the 
latter  term  ? 

17.     The   Peculiar,    Highly    Specialized    Flowers    of 
THE  Milkweed  Family  —  Milkweed  (Asclepias)   - 

Forms.  The  true  milkweeds  form  a  large  group  of  plants 
having  very  characteristic  features,  but  most  of  the  species 
bloom  too  late  to  permit  them  to  be  in  condition  for  school 
study.  There  are  a  number  of  June-flowering  forms,  how- 
ever, and  the  genus  has  such  remarkable  specialization  for 
insect  pollination  that  an  examination  of  the  flowers  will 
be  amply  repaid.  The  instructor  may  have  to  explain  the 
complicated  pollination  mechanism,  as  the  flower  is  very 
difficult  for  the  student  to  master. 

The  plant.  Examine  the  plant  and  observe  the  character 
and  arrangement  of  the  leaves.  Observe  the  peculiar  sap 
(latex).     What   is  its  color  and   consistency  ?     Touch   the 


A   MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  71 

tongue  to  the  sap.  What  is  the  taste  ?  Of  what  special 
use  may  this  latex  be  ?     What  is  the  inflorescence  ? 

Flower.  Study  a  single  flower.  What  is  the  number  and 
color  of  the  sepals  and  petals  ?  Test  the  flower  for  odor. 
Is  it  pleasant?  Within  the  petals  and  attached  to  them 
notice  a  corona  of  five  concave  hoods,  each  bearing  within 
a  Closed  horn.  Observe  the  stamens  and  determine  their 
number  and  place  of  origin  and  the  short  filaments  and 
anthers.  How  are  these  related  to  each  other  and  to  the 
stigma  ?  Notice  a  peculiar  inflexed.  membranous  tip  to 
each  anther.  Seek  carefully  for  the  pollen  7nasses  and  ob- 
serve, if  possible,  the  peculiarity  of  their  attachment. 

Draw  a  flower  plan,  a  flower,  and  details  of  the  corona  and 
stamens. 

Action  toward  insects.  In  your  reference  books  read  about 
the  relation  of  these  plants  and  bees.  Notice  in  summer  the 
charm  the  common  milkweed  flowers  have  for  butterflies. 
What  attracts  them  ?  What  do  you  find,  occasionally,  has 
happened  to  insects  ?  May  the  flower  be  said  to  have  be- 
come too  highly  specialized  when  it  catches  insects  ? 

Latex.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  plants  you  know  that  have 
milky  sap  or  latex. 

Collect  a  lot"  of  milkweed  "  sap,"  heat  it  slowly  and  care- 
fully over  a  smoky  fire.  What  happens  ?  Put  your  heated 
product  aside  to  cool.  Examine  and  test  for  odor,  color, 
consistency,  and  toughness  or  elastic  qualities. 

What  plants  furnish  rubber  ?  How  is  it  prepared  ? 
Why  is  it  valuable?  Burn  a  piece  and  observe  all  the 
phenomena.  Put  a  small  piece  of  pure  soft  rubber  into  a 
vial  of  chloroform.  What  happens  ?  Try  another  piece  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon.     (Keep  both  away  from  flame.) 

Make  some  scars  in  the  fruit  capsules  of  the  large  garden 
poppies.  Observe  the  latex  and  allow  it  to  dry.  What 
color  has  it  ?  What  have  you  produced  ?  (Read  about 
opium.) 


72  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Find  out  some  facts  about  "  spurges/'  a  great  family  of 
plants  with  milky  latex. 


18.    The  Salver  Form    of  Gamopetalous    Flowers  of 
THE  Phlox  Species  (Polemoxium  Family) 

The  plants.  Common  and  showy  plants  of  many  life 
habits.  Study  them  as  they  grow  if  you  are  able.  What 
common  name  is  applied  to  many  forms  ? 

Flower.  Examine  a  flowering  branch  for  the  character 
and  arrangement  of  the  leaves  and  the  form  of  the  inflores- 
cence. Study  a  single  flower.  What  do  you  observe  about 
the  calyx  and  the  peculiar  form  of  the  corolla?  Such  a 
form  is  said  to  be  salver  form.  The  long  slender  base  is 
the  corolla  tube,  and  the  lobed,  expanded  part  of  the  flower 
is  the  lijnb.  Is  the  flower  with  petals  separate  or  united  ? 
Is  there  any  evidence  of  odor  ?  Do  all  the  flowers  of  a 
corymb  open  at  once  or  are  there  some  buds  and  blossoms? 
Seek  for  the  stamens.  Where  are  they  borne  and  how  many 
are  there  ?  Where  are  the  anthers  with  reference  to  the 
stigma?  Examine  the  pistil.  Is  the  ovary  superior  or 
inferior?     How  many  styles  are  there? 

Draw  a  flower  on  its  peduncle  to  show  both  calyx  and 
corolla.  Make  a  drawing  showing  position  of  stamens. 
Draw  a  flower  plan.     Draw  a  pistil. 

Pollination,  etc.  What  scheme  of  pollination  does  the 
phlox  have  ?  Of  what  importance  is  the  genus  as  a  garden 
flower  ?     What  does  "  phlox  "  mean  ? 

Flowers  with  long  tubes.  Name  as  many  flowers  as 
you  know  with  long  corolla  tubes.  What  insects  visit 
such  flowers  ?  What  mouth  parts  would  be  necessary 
with  such  forms  ?  Correlate  the  sucking  tongue  of  a  but- 
terfly, inserted  into  the  tube,  with  the  position  of  anther 
and  sticrma. 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  73 

19.   The  Lipped  ok  Labiate  Flowers  of  the  Mint 
Family  —  Ground  Ivy 

The  plants.  The  JVlint  family  is  one  of  the  most  natural 
l)lant  groups  to  be  found  in  the  temperate  portion  of  the 
United  States.  Square  stems,  odorous  leaves,  and  two- 
lipped  flowers  are  special  features  that  are  very  conspicu- 
ous, and  the  student  may  easily  familiarize  himself  with 
these  prominent  characteristics.  Nearly  all  species  are  late 
in  blooming,  and  about  the  only  one  obtainable  in  June  will 
be  the  plant  named  above.  The  student  may  commonly  see 
it  growing  in  deep  shade  about  dwellings,  and  so  learn  of 
its  appearance  and  habits. 

Examine  the  whole  flowering  stem.  What  peculiarity  of 
the  stem  is  apparent  ?  How  are  the  leaves  arranged  ? 
Smell  the  leaves  before  and  after  rubbing  them  gently. 
What  do  you  observe? 

Flowers.  How  are  the  flowers  situated  ?  What  is  their 
size,  color,  and  peculiar  form  ?  In  particular,  what  special 
features  has  the  corolla  ?  How  many  petals  are  there  ? 
Flowers  of  this  form  are  labiate,  or  lipped.  Look  for  the 
stamens.  Where  do  you  find  them  and  how  many  are 
there  ?  What  color  have  the  anthers  and  what  is  the  situa- 
tion of  these  structures  with  reference  to  the  stigma  ?  Do 
stigma  and  anther  seem  equally  mature?  Examine  the 
ovary  {m).     What  do  you  find  ? 

Draw,  as  usual,  the  flower  features.  Draw  also  a  flowering 
stem. 

Uses  of  mints.  Make  a  table  of  useful  and  ornamental 
plants  belonging  to  this  family.  There  are  3000  kinds. 
What  are  the  mints  of  commerce?  How  is  peppermint 
made  ?     (See  leaf.  Applied  Work.) 

What  are  essential  oils  ?  ^Nlake  a  list  of  them,  and  observe 
the  number  furnished  by  this  family.  Read  about. ''men- 
thol "  in  your  reference  books. 


74  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

20.    The  Labiate  or  Irregular   Flowers  op  the 
FiGWORT  Family  —  Figwort 

The  plants.  The  Figwort  family  produces  few  early 
flowers,  but  it  happens  that  the  type  genus,  figwort,  blooms 
in  time  for  study. 

Observe  the  great  resemblance  of  some  of  the  stem  and 
leaf  characters  to  those  found  in  the  mint  family.  Rub  the 
leaves,  as  in  the  ground  ivy.  What  result  do  you  have? 
What  is  the  inflorescence  ? 

Flowers.  Examine  the  separate  flowers  and  observe  the 
odd  form  and  arrangement  of  sepals  and  petals.  What  is 
the  color  of  each  ?  Find  the  number  and  place  of  attach- 
ment of  the  stamens. 

Compare  the  flower,  with  its  form  and  parts,  with  that  of 
the  ground  ivy. 

Examine  the  pistil.  How  do  its  parts  differ  from  those 
of  the  ground  ivy  ?     How  does  the  number  of  ovules  differ  ? 

Draw  inflorescence  and  flower  plan  and  flower,  side  view 
and  laid  open  to  show  stamens. 

What  plan,  if  any,  has  the  flower  for  pollination  ?  Do 
all  the  flowers  mature  at  the  same  time  ?  Do  bees  frequent 
the  plant  ? 

Make  a  list  of  useful  plants  belonging  to  this  family ;  in 
particular,  foxglove,  musk  plant,  mullein.  Find  some  value 
for  each  one  on  your  list. 

21.   Parasitic  Plant  Demonstration 

Forms  obtainable.  It  is  possible  in  most  places,  either 
early  or  late  in  the  season,  to  procure  examples  of  broom 
rape,  squaicroot,  heechdrops,  Indian  2'>ipe,  or  dodders.  All  are 
equally  good  to  show  the  profound  modifications  caused  by 
parasitism. 

The  plant  features.     Compare  the  color  of  the  plant  under 


A   MANUAL   OF   130TANY 


75 


consideration  with  ordinary  green  plants.  Examine  or  learn 
the  place  of  growth  of  the  plant  and  explain  the  peculiarities 
of  color  you  observe.  Upon  what  food  does  the  plant  live 
and  from  what  source  is  the  food  obtained?  How  do  the 
plants  obtain  such  places  iu  which  to  grow  ?  What  advan- 
tage, if  any,  to  the  plant,  is  this  parasitic  habit  ? 

Examine,  if  at  hand,  the  inflorescence  and  flower,  and  make 
such  notes  and  drawings  as  are  necessary  to  show  the  results 
of  your  observation.  In  particular  observe  the  number  and 
size  of  the  seeds.  What  evidence,  if  any,  of  special  pollina- 
tion schemes  ? 

Table.  Make  a  table  of  a  number  of  plant  parasites  of  the 
seed  plant  group,  using  the  following  form  :  — 


N.vMF  OK  Plant 


Family  of  Plant 


WlIEKK    FoUNl 


Peculiarities 


22.    Honeysuckles  or  Viburnums* 

Forms.  A  number  of  the  wild  species,  notably  the  smooth 
red-flowered  honeysuckle,  and  the  cultivated  bush  forms  are 
suitable  and  easy  of  access. 

If  the  species  studied  is  one  of  the  climbing  forms,  ex- 
amine the  method  of  climbing  and  the  structure  of  the  stem. 
Observe  also  the  leaf  arrangement  and  any  other  peculiari- 
ties of  these  organs. 

Flowers.  Examine  the  inflorescence.  What  type  is 
shown  ?  Examine  the  calyx  and  find  its  relation  to  the 
ovary.  What  form  has  the  corolla  ?  Study  this  structure 
for  color,  size,  number  of  lobes  or  petals,  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  latter  into  regular  or  irregular  flower. 


1  The  highest  in  the  rank  of  flowers  except  the  composites. 


76  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  tube  ?  (The  viburnums  hardly 
ever  liave  tubes.)  Is  there  any  odor  or  brilliant  appearance 
to  attract  insects  ?  Look  for  the  stamens.  How  many  are 
there  and  where  are  they  borne  ?  Examine  the  pistil  for  its 
parts.  Examine  the  relative  position  and  maturity  of  the 
anthers  and  stigma  for  pollination  devices. 

Draw  a  spray,  showing  leaves  and  flowers;  also  a  single 
flower.     Draw  a  flower  i)lan. 

Determine  some  of  the  ornamental  or  useful  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  honeysuckle  family.  Why  does  this  family  have 
this  name  ? 

Rank  in  flowers.  The  more  of  the  following  characters 
any  flower  possesses  the  higher  in  rank  it  is  considered  to 
be:  — 

1.  Ovary  inferior. 

2.  Irregular  corolla. 

3.  Gamopetalous. 

4.  Various  modifications  of  stamen  and  pistil  to  insure 
insect  pollination. 

5.  Complex  inflorescence. 

23.    The  Composite  Family  (Aster  Tribe) 

The  largest  (15,000  species),  highest  rank,  and  most  difficult  for 
the  student  to  understand.  Not  many  species  bloom  before  June  ;  the 
dandelion,  fleabane,  and  ragwort  being  exceptions. 

FLEABANES   OR  RAGWORTS.    TUBULAR  FLOWERED  FORMS 

General  statement.  The  "  head."  Flowers  of  this  family 
are  really  a  collection  of  small  flowers  of  fewer  or  greater 
numbers,  borne  on  a  large  receptacle,  and  inclosed  at  their 
outer  margin  by  few  or  many  small  greenish  or  otherwise 
colored  bracts  forming  an  involucre.  The  small  individual 
flowers  are  of  one  or  two  kinds :  the  central  tubular  forms 
called  disk  Jloicers,  and  flattened  marginal  forms  called  ray 
flowers.     The  latter  may  be  absent  (as  in  thistles)   or  all 


A   MANUAL   OF   HOTANY 


77 


the  flowers  may  be  Hat  in  form  (as  in  the  dandelion).  For 
proper  study  a  lens  is  a  necessity.  The  collection  of  flowers 
surrounded  by  the  involucre  is  called  a  "  head." 

Study  the  head  for  size  and  color  of  each  of  the  above 
parts,  observing  the  difference,  if  any,  in  color  of  disk  and 
ray.  Determine  the  number  of  ray  and  disk  flowers,  at  least 
approximately.  Look  at  the  bracts  of  the  involucre,  and 
observe  the  form,  number,  and  arrangement.  The  student 
is  very  apt  to  consider  the  involucre  a  calyx  and  so  designate 
it.     Be  careful  about  this. 

The  individual  disk  and  ray  flowers.  Study  each  form  care- 
full}'  (m),  particularly  the  disk  flowers.  On  the  latter,  find 
a  tiny  seedlike  ovary  below,  a  cluster  of  fine  hairs  {pappus 
calyx)  just  above,  and  above  the  latter  a  tube  ending  in  five 
teeth  (petals).  Projecting  from  the  tube  is  a  forked  style, 
closely  invested  by  five  anthers. 

Drawings.  Make  the  following  drawings :  side  and  face 
views  of  the  compound  flower,  a  single  ray  and  a  single  disk 
flower  (m),  and  a  plan  of  the  compound  flower. 

Problems.  Why  are  the  flowers  of  this  family  so  numerous 
in  species  and  individuals  ?  What  common  devices  for  pol- 
lination have  been  perfected  ?  For  seed  distribution  ?  Why 
is  this  family  considered  the  highest  in  the  plant  scale  ? 
(See  No.  22.) 

Useful  applications.  Make  a  table  of  useful  and  ornamental 
plants  belonging  to  the  tubular  forms  of  the  family,  using 
the  form  given  below  as  a  guide. 


Plants  for  Food  with  Ediki.k 


Roots 


Leaves 


Stems 


Flowers 


Plants  for 
Ornament 


Plants  for 
Medicink 


78  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

24.    The  Composite  Family  (Chicory  Tribe)  —  The 
Dandeliox.     Flowers  all  Flat  or  Strap  Form 

Statement.  The  dandelion,  owing  to  its  size  and  extreme 
abundance,  is  a  flower  much  more  satisfactory  to  study  than 
the  fleabane  or  ragwort,  but,  as  it  shows  a  different  type  of 
head,  does,  not  give,  alone,  a  complete  idea  of  the  composite 
types.  The  dandelion  as  it  grows  ought  to  receive  attention. 
The  soil  in  which  it  flourishes,  its  love  of  sunlight,  and  its 
season  of  bloom  are  also  to  be  considered.  Their  great 
numbers  ought  to  be  carefully  explained,  if  you  can  discover 
any  good  reasons. 

The  head.  Examine  the  compound  Jloiver  and  observe 
the  size,  color,  and  appearance,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
involucral  bracts.  How  does  the  latter  feature  vary  in  bud, 
full  bloom,  and  fruit  ?  Compare  the  height  above  the 
ground  of  the  flower,  and  the  downy  head  of  fruit,  succeed- 
ing, and  explain. 

The  flower.  Study  a  single  flower  and  observe  the 
inferior,  single-seeded  ovary,  bearing  at  its  summit  the  hair- 
like calyx  and  the  flattened  corolla.  Look  at  the  hairs 
{pappus)  (m),  and  observe  length  and  general  appearance. 
Examine  the  corolla.  What  are  the  features  of  the  tube  and 
the  limb  ?  How  many  petals  are  united  to  form  the  corolla  ? 
Look  at  the  projecting  tube  of  anthers  inclosing  the  top  of 
the  pistil.  How  many  stamens  are  there  and  upon  what  are 
they  borne  ?  Examine  the  pollen  {m)  for  quantity  and  for 
form  (Jip).      Dissect  out  the  pistil  and  find  all   its   parts. 

Drawings.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  side  view  of  the  com- 
pound flower,  of  a  single  flower,  a  complete  pistil,  and  some 
pollen  grains. 

Problems.  What  method  of  pollination  has  the  dandelion  ? 
What  method  of  seed  distribution  ?  Where  are  dandelions 
found  ?     Explain  their  wide  distribution. 

Table.  Make  a  table  of  plants  belonging  to  this  tribe, 
using  the  following  form  :  — 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


79 


Namk 


Nativk  IIomk 


Pakt  U«ki) 


For  what  Used 


25.   Some  Practical  AppticATioxs  of  Flowers 

1.  The  iiroduction  of  honefj.  Examine  such  flowers  as 
white  and  sweet  clovers,  heartsease,  buckwheat,  bass  wood, 
and  other  plants  from  the  nectar  of  which  the  bees  make 
honey.  Examine,  if  possible,  honey  made  from  any  of  them. 
What  is  honey  ? 

2.  The  production  of  perfumes.  Take  any  very  fragrant 
flower,  as  certain  roses,  collect  a  quantity  of  perfectly  fresh 
ones  in  a  clean  jar,  suspend  a  small  fine  sponge  saturated 
with  pure  olive  oil,  and  close  tightly.  Press  out  the  oil 
after  twenty-four  hours  and  observe  its  odor.  Try  other 
methods,  as  saturation  with  alcohol  and  heating  gently  to 
drive  it  off,  through  a  tube  leading  into  weak  alcohol,  or 
pure  oil.  Test  for  odor.  The  results  will  be  imperfect,  but 
you  can  make  a  perfume.  Find  out  what  flowers  are  used 
in  large  amounts  for  this  industry. 

3.  The  production  of  drugs.  Cover  English  marigold 
{calendula),  chamomile,  or  dry  arnica  flowers  with  70% 
alcohol,  and  allow  to  remain  for  a  week.  Observe  the 
change  in  color  and  odor,  also  taste  of  the  alcohol.  You  are 
making  drugs  in  a  crude  way. 

4.  Quickly  dry  rose  i)etals,  violets,  or  other  fragrant 
flowers  and  observe  qualities  of  the  dried  products. 

5.  Gently  cook  violets  in  sugar  syrup  until  thoroughly 
saturated ;  strain  and  dry.     You  have  a  candied  flower. 

6.  Buy  a  little  crocus  saffron,  and  extract  color  with 
dilute  alcohol.     Some  flowers  are  used  for  dyes. 

7.  Cut  flowers.  Examine  a  number  of  florists'  sliow 
windows,  and  make  a  list  of  the  flowers  most  commonly 


80  REPRESENTATIVE    PLANTS 

exhibited  for  sale.     Obtain  their  prices  aud  make  a  table  of 
results. 

SP:CTI0N   VII.     STUDY  OF  FRUITS  (VARIOUS  FRUITS) 

General  statement.  The  various  fruits  in  the  Fall  Fruits 
Exercise  are  to  be  referred  to,  but  the  exercises  here  given 
take  up  the  subject  more  specifically  and  with  greater  detail. 
The  fruit  definition  should  be  ever  before  the  student,  viz. : 
A  seed-plant  structure,  consisting  of  the  ripened  ovary 
alone  or  with  its  attached  or  adjacent  flower  parts,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  whole  being,  first,  protection  to  the  seed,  and 
finally  seed  dissemination.  Many  fruits  also  furnish  food 
for  the  successful  seed  growth. 

Types.  There  are  many  types,  each  characterized  by  the 
possession  of  certain  peculiarities  of  size,  form,  and  structure, 
but  all  are  separated  into  dry  and  fleshy  (or  2mlpy)  fruits, 
according  to  the  amount  of  fluid  they  contain  when  ripe. 
Fruits  again  may  open  spontaneously  (are  dehiscent)  by  valves 
or  2^ores,  discharging  the  seed,  or  the  latter  may  only  escape 
by  the  decay  of  the  fruit  {indehi scent). 

The  following  types  are  named  with  a  common  example 
of  each.  Each  of  these  examples  should  be  carefully 
studied  externally  and  in  section  and  a  set  of  characteristics 
formulated. 

Drawings  should  be  made  to  show  the  result  of  the  study. 


Examples 

1. 

The  grain. 

maize,  oats. 

2. 

The  akene. 

sunflower. 

3. 

The  samara. 

maple,  ash. 

4. 

The  nut. 

acorn,  hazel. 

5. 

The  dry  drapes. 

walnut,  hickory. 

6. 

The  pod. 

bean,  pea. 

7. 

The  capsule. 

figwort. 

8. 

The  cone. 

pino. 

9. 

The  drupe. 

cherry,  apricot. 

A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY 


81 


10.  The  berry. 

11.  The  hesperidiuiu. 

12.  The  pome. 
18.  The  pepo. 

14.  The  aggregate  fruit. 

15.  The  confluent  fruit. 
Ki.  Tiie  accessory. 


gooseberry,  grape,  tomato, 
orange,  lemon 

(a  modified  berry). 
apple, 
cucumber, 
blackberry, 
pineapple, 
strawberry. 


If  time  i)ermits,  study  other  fruits  and  refer  them  to  the 
proper  type.     jNIake  necessary  drawings. 

In  each  fruit  seek  to  determine  the  particuhar  scheme 
adopted  on  the  part  of  the  phant  for  seed  scattering  and  the 
external  agent  that  combines  with  the  plant  to  produce  the 
desired  result. 

Fruit  table.     INIake  a  table  of  fruits  as  follows  :  — 


Common 
Name 


Fkitit 
Name 


Where 
Native 


Juicy 
OR  Dry 


Dehis- 
cent OR 

Not 


Seed- 
scatter- 
ing 
Scheme 
of  Fri'it 


Ex- 
ternal 
Agent  in 


Uf'E 


Uses  of  fruits.  Numberless  experiments  may  be  performed 
by  the  student  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  obtaining 
from  fruits  some  of  the  following  useful  products :  — 


1.  Evaporated  apples. 

2.  Prunes. 

3.  Raisins. 

4.  Dried. 

6.  Candied. 

6.  Canned. 

7.  Jellies. 

8.  .Tuices. 
1>.  Ciders. 


10.  Vinegars. 

1 1 .  Sugars. 

12.  Oils. 

1.3.  Starches. 

14.  Rinds. 

1.').  Wines. 

16.  Alcohols. 

17.  Perfumes. 

18.  Proteids. 


10.  Flavoi-s. 

20.  Medicines. 

21.  Relishes. 

22.  Foods. 

23.  Drinks. 

24.  Fibers. 

25.  Ilium inants. 
20.  Miscellaneous. 


PART   II 

OPTIONAL  PRELIMINARY  STUDIES 

SECTION   I.     SUGGESTIONS 

Order  of  study.  ^Vllen  you  examine  any  object  in  the 
laboratory,  the  proper  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Discover  all  you  can  about  it  with  the  unaided  eye. 

2.  When  small,  use  a  hand  lens  or  magnifying  glass. 
The  sign  {m)  in  this  book  refers  to  such  an  instrument. 

3.  If  the  object  is  very  small,  the  compound  microscopic 
may  be  required.  The  signs  (Ip)  and  (Jip)  refer  to  low  and 
high  powers  of  this  instrument.  The  parts  and  use  of  a 
compound  microscope  ought  to  be  familiarized  by  reference 
to  charts  or  books  furnished  by  instrument  makers. 

4.  After  a  thorough  study  of  the  object,  drawings  are  to 
be  made  showing  all  that  you  have  discovered. 

5.  Finally,  complete  notes,  descriptions,  or  other  written 
work  are  to  be  made,  showing  all  that  you  have  discovered. 
These  are  to  be  preserved  in  connection  with  the  drawings. 

Tools  for  work.  The  instruments  named  in  Order  of  Study 
together  with  certain  others,  as  the  projection  lantern  and 
the  opaque  projector,  will  enable  you  to  see  the  object.  To 
assist  in  handling  the  object  other  tools  are  sometimes  used, 
as  needles,  scissors,  forceps,  scalpels,  and,  at  times,  apparatus 
of  different  kinds. 

The  projecting  lantern,  which  throws  upon  the  screen  images 
from  the  lantern  or  microscope  slides,  is  a  very  important  laboratory 
help,  supplementing  the  compound  microscope,  and  is  often  used  in 
well-equipped  laboratories.  The  advantage  derived  is  often  very  great, 
saving  time  and  labor,  and  insuring  that  all  pupils  see  just  the  impor- 
tant features  of  structure  most  essential  to  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  subject. 

82 


I 


A   MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  83 

Character  of  work.  All  drawings  ought  to  be  made  with 
well-sharpened  and  medium-hard  pencils,  or,  preferably,  with 
a  fine  pen  and  India  ink;  the  outline  should  be  clear,  dis- 
tinct, and  accurate  ;  every  important  feature  should  be  prop- 
erly and  neatly  labeled;  and  all  written  work  ought  to  be 
in  good  l)lack  ink.  In  everything  the  standard  should  be 
accuracy,  completeness,  and  )ieat  appearance. 

Preliminary  work.  Study  the  compound  microscope  by  the 
aid  of  the  book  furnished.  Examine  permanent  preparations 
given  to  you,  and  make  sketches  to  show  each  as  it  api)ears 
under  the  microscope.  The  preparations  may  be  mounted 
letters,  plant  cells  of  various  kinds,  fibers  of  other  materials. 
The  object  of  this  work  is  to  familiarize  you  with  the  use 
of  the  compound  microscope,  and  to  practically  apply  what 
you  have  learned. 

SECTION  II.     FALL   FLOWERS 
(Introductory    Work) 

1.   The  Nasturtium  or  Other  Simple  Flower 

Various  species  of  plants,  preferably  simple  forms,  as  Bouncing 
Bet,  geranium,  or  nasturtium,  may  be  used  for  this  study.  The 
nasturtium  is  particularly  good,  because  of  its  abundance  and  the 
large  size  of  its  parts.     Tiie  entire  plant  ought  to  be  used. 

Place  of  growth.  In  the  study  of  a  particular  plant  the 
first  step  is  to  observe  its  place  of  growth  and  the  character  of 
the  soil ;  that  is,  whether  it  is  wild  or  cultivated,  whether 
the  locality  is  wet  or  dry,  and  finally,  whether  the  soil  is 
sandy,  clayey,  black  and  loamy,  or  has  other  peculiarities. 
This  peculiar  place  of  growth  is  the  habitat  and  is  the  first 
subject  to  be  investigated  in  the  study  of  any  plant,  as  it  has 
much  infiuence  on  form  and  structure. 

Associations.  If  flowers  are  wild,  they  may  grow  in  little 
communities  by  themselves,  or  they  may  be  moi-e  or  less 
intermixed  with  plants  of  other  kinds.     These  pure  or  mixed 


84  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

collections  of  plants,  growing  in  a  given  habitat,  are  called 
associations. 

The  plant  body.  Observe  the  peculiarities  of  the  plant  form 
and  growth :  habit,  unbranched  or  branched,  low  or  tall ; 
leafiness  varying  in  degree ;  dry  and  harsh  with  scurf, 
down,  hair  or  bristles,  or  smooth ;  color  of  various  shades 
of  green,  yellow,  brown,  or  red ;  the  size,  form,  and  division 
of  the  root. 

The  leaf.  Observe  the  size,  form,  and  color  of  the  expanded 
blade,  the  degree  of  division,  and  the  arrangement  on  the 
stem.  Crush  the  leaf  to  discover  if  there  is  any  odor.  Exam- 
ine carefully  with  the  lens  to  see  whether  the  surface  is 
smooth  or  is  covered  with  projections  (scurf,  hair,  or  bris- 
tles) ;  observe  the  method  of  attachment  of  the  blade  to  the 
stem  by  means  of  a  longer  or  shorter  stalk,  or  directly, 
without  this  structure. 

Inflorescence.  Observe  the  inflorescence  or  flower  bearing . 
i.e.  flowers  borne  singly  or  in  clusters  of  various  size 
and  shape  (each  cluster  having  a  special  name).  Diagrams 
will  enable  you  to  decide  which  form  your  plant  possesses. 
These  may  be  drawn  by  the  instructor. 

In  position  the  inflorescence  is  terminal,  on  stem  or  branch, 
thus  halting  further  growth  for  that  year,  or  it  is  axillary 
and  does  not  so  affect  the  plant.  Observe  the  relation 
between  the  size  of  the  flower  and  the  size  and  kind  of 
inflorescence.     What  forms  would  favor  large  flowers  ? 

The  flower.  (The  flower  is  treated  of  in  detail  and  rela- 
tionship in  Part  I.)  Observe  the  form,  size,  color,  odor,  and 
number;  beginning  below,  or  on  the  outside  of  a  flower, 
note  the  different  series  of  parts,  each  bearing  a  technical 
name:  (a)  sepal,  (h)  petal,  (c)  stamen,  (d)  pistil ;  observe 
also  the  difference  in  form  and  color  between  the  members 
of  the  various  series. 

Drawings  to  be  made.  1.  The  whole  plant,  if  small,  or  a 
leafy  branch,  if  large. 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


85 


2.  A  single  leaf,  showing  all  its  parts. 

3.  Diagram  of  the  inflorescence. 

4.  Side  and  face  views  of  a  flower,  natnral  size  or  (m). 

5.  Other  details  as  may  be  called  lor. 

Table  of  flowers.     Make  a  table  of  all  flowers  obtainable 
at  time  of  study,  using  form  here  given. 


Name 


WUEKK 

GuowiN( 


Inflo- 

UE8CEN<-K 


Size 


Tpe,  IK  Any 


I 


2.    The  CoMrosnM:,  on  Ct)MrLKX  Flowers 

General  statement.  A  complete  flower  study  is  taken  up 
as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Study  of  Seed  Plants,  but  it 
is  advisable  for  the  student  to  become  somewhat  familiar 
with  the  more  characteristic  flowers  of  the  fall.  V)j  far  the 
larger  majority  of  these  flowers  belong  to  a  great  family  of 
plants  called  the  Compositae,  Avhich  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
plant  families,  containing  some  15,000  species. 

What  is  called  a  flower  really  consists  of  many  small 
flowers  of  one  or  of  two  forms  collected  together  in  a  head, 
which  is  surrounded  at  its  base  by  a  number  of  small,  usu- 
ally green  structures  (bracts)  forming  an  involucre. 

One  of  the  two  forms  mentioned  above  is  flat  and  elon- 
gated, colored,  often  brightly,  and  narrowed  at  its  base  into 
a  white,  or  otherwise  colored  part,  which  usually  bears 
scales,  bristles,  or  fine  hairs  above,  and  a  single  seed  below. 
This  form  of  flower  may  compose  the  whole  head,  but  more 
generally  it  is  arranged  around  the  outside  of  the  head  in 
fewer  or  larger  numbers.     From  their  position  these  flowers 


86  REPRESENTATIVi:   PLANTS 

are  called  rays  or  rai/  flowers.  Why  is  such  a  name  appro- 
priate ? 

The  second  form  is  a  tu])iilar,  more  or  less  elongated 
structure,  usually  five-toothed  at  its  upper  end,  and  bearing 
below,  the  structures  named  in  the  first  form.  From  its 
position  those  flowers  are  called  disk  flowers,  and  the  whole 
number  combined  is  called  the  disk.  Why  are  these  terms 
used  ? 

Projecting  from  the  top  of  the  disk  flower,  or  from  near 
the  middle  of  the  ray  flower,  are  forked  structures,  com- 
monly tightly  inclosed  in  a  yellowish  enlarged  part  or 
sheath.  These  two  structures  are  the  reproductive  bodies 
(pistil  and  stamens)  of  the  flower,  and  they  are  considered 
in  detail  in  another  place. 

The  special  flower.  Study  carefully  the  particular  plant, 
provided  that  it  bears  one  or  more  heads  of  flowers.  Learn 
all  that  you  can  about  the  flower  in  its  place  of  growth, 
whether  in  a  shady  or  open  place,  in  water  or  swamp,  ordi- 
nary dry  land  or  in  very  dry  places,  as  sand  or  rock.  These 
several  situations  give  rise  to  three  diverse  plant  associ- 
ations: the  water-plants  (Hydrophytes),  ordinary  plants 
(Mesophytes),  and  very  dry  land  plants  (Xerophytes).  Ob- 
serve also  whether  the  plants  grow  singly  or  grouped  to- 
gether in  numbers. 

Compare  the  flower  carefully  with  the  statements  made 
above  and  determine  the  particular  feature  of  the  flower  head. 

Drawings.  Sketch,  natural  size,  the  head,  face,  and  side 
views,  and  name  all  the  parts. 

Sketch  a  ray  and  a  disk  flower  (m),  one  or  both,  accord- 
ing to  the  flower. 

Sketch  a  bract  of  the  involucre  (in). 

Description.  Describe  carefully,  noting  the  size,  color, 
odor,  parts,  and  arrangement  on  the  flower  stem ;  note  also 
the  character  of  the  leaves,  their  number  and  arrangement. 
If  present,  observe  and  describe  the  root. 


A   MANUAL   OF  JiOTANY 


87 


Table.     ]\[ake  a  table  for  coiiiparisoii  of  Coinpositae  flowers 
studied,  using  this  funn  :  — 


Namk  of 

Fl.ONSKK 


Color  of 
Parts 


Kayh 


Disk 


Invohu'rk 


Otiikr 

Fk  ATI' RES 


Questions.  1.  How  do  composite  flowers  compare  with 
other  flowers  in  number  of  individuals  ?  How  do  you  ex- 
plain ? 

2.  Why  are  so  many  of  the  composite  flowers  of  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  yellow  in  color  ?  (45  out  of  100  kinds  are 
yellow.) 

3.  Why  do  red  and  yellow  flowers,  as  a  rule,  have  no 
fragrance,  or  at  least  very  little  ? 

4.  Why  are  asters  and  goldenrods  such  hardy  plants  ? 
(Hint:  Are  they  dry  and  harsh,  or  soft  and  full  of  moisture?) 

5.  Why  are  there  so  many  dandelions  ? 

6.  Why,  on  an  average,  is  there  one  composite  flower  for 
every  nine  of  all  other  kinds  combined  ? 

(Study  their  fruits  to  help  you  in  answering  this  question.) 
Additional  work.     1.    Make  a  table  shoAving  the  uses  of 
composites,  preparing  your  tablet  paper  thus  :  — 


Name 

Where  Found 

Part  Used 

Use 

llf-MAKKS 

Arnica 

Europe 

Flowers 

Medicinal 

Liniment  for 
sprains 

88  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

2.    Make  a  table  of  wild  and  cultivated  composites  thus 


Color  of 
Flower 


Cultivated 
OR  Not 


Number  and 
Sizes  of  Seed 


Kind  of 
Dispersal 


3.   A  Study  of  Common  Weeds 

Statement.  Weeds  have  such  a  vast  influence  on  the  wel- 
fare of  the  farmer,  and  so  indirectly  on  the  people  in  general, 
that  a  knowlege  of  the  more  important  forms  is  very  de- 
sirable ;  moreover,  weeds  are  so  common  and  show  in  a 
marked  way  so  many  truths  of  botanical  science  that  a 
couple  of  weeks  spent  in  their  study  is  time  well  spent. 

Collection  for  study.  Bring  into  the  laboratory  samples  of 
the  common  weeds  of  your  neighborhood,  and  study  each  to 
learn  its  name,  characteristics  of  growth  and  foliage,  root 
system,  number,  size,  and  method  of  the  distribution  of  the 
seeds. 

When  gathering  weeds,  observe  the  abundance  of  each 
form,  place  of  growth,  soil,  and  presence  or  absence  of 
damaged  foliage  (by  stock,  insects,  or  other  animals). 

Successful  weeds.  Observation  has  shown  that  successful 
plants  possess  one  or  more  of  the  following  points  ;  compare 
your  weeds  with  the  headings  in  this  list :  — 

(a)  Can  grow  in  any  soil  or  very  poor  soil.* 

(b)  Produces  great  numbers  of  seeds.* 

(c)  Special  methods  of  seed  or  fruit  dispersal.* 

(d)  Deep  fleshy  taproots,  or, 

(e)  Very  many  fibrous  roots. 
(/)    Biennials  (living  two  years). 
(g)    Annuals  (living  one  season).* 


I 
I 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


89 


seasons). 


Perennial  (living  three  or  more 

Few  or  no  animal  enemies.* 

Strong  odor  or  taste.* 

Harsh  or  dry  in  nature  of  foliage.* 

Not  beautiful  or  strikingly  pleasing.* 

Seeds   hard,   and   these   or  the  fruits 


(A) 

(0 
if) 
(k) 

(I) 

(m)  Seeds  hard,  and  these  or  the  fruits  attractive  to 
birds.* 

(?i)    Not  native  to  this  country.* 

(o)     Native. 

The  characteristics  that  are  starred  are  particularly  favor- 
able (from  the  standpoint  of  the  very  successful  weed). 

Definition.  From  all  your  observation  and  study  try  to 
express  in  words  a  good  definition  for  "  a  weed." 

Table.  ^Nfake  a  table  of  all  the  weeds  you  are  able  to  find 
in  the  vicinity  of  your  home,  using  the  following  form:  — 


\  A  M  K 


WlIEKF, 

Native 


Where 
Gkowixg 


Seki) 
Keatiues 


iN.ffRrOCS 

OR  Not 


Use 


Field  work.  1.  In  any  vacant  lot  near  your  home,  meas- 
ure off  carefully  a  square  plot  of  ground  of  some  definite 
size,  five  or  more  feet  on  each  side,  that  contains  a  large  num- 
ber of  weeds.  On  a  large  scale,  make  a  map  of  the  plot,  stat- 
ing the  kind  of  soil,  amount  of  moisture,  and  shade. 

2.  Now  carefully  determine  the  number  and  location  of 
each  variety  of  weeds,  showing  by  dots,  circles,  and  other 
means  each  different  kind;  if  possible,  representing  each 
plant  by  a  mark. 

3.  By  consultation  with  the  teacher  determine  the  name 
of  each  kind.  Carefully  press  and  mount  on  your  tablet 
paper,  leaf  and  fruit  of  each  species,  or  make  careful  draw- 
ings of  the  same. 


90  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

4.  Try  to  determine  by  reference  to  Successful  .Weeds 
what  features  are  found  in  the  more  abundant  weeds.  Seek 
in  this  way  to  find  out  some,  at  least,  of  the  reasons  for  their 
success,  recording  your  conclusions  on  the  page  opposite 
your  map. 

Reading.  Read  in  the  Government  Bulletins  how  weeds 
damage  the  crops,  and  note  what  is  said  of  the  loss  caused 
by  them.  (Government  Bulletins  are  to  be  had  free  for  the 
asking.) 

SECTION  HI.     A   STUDY  OF   FALL   FRUITS 

Statement.  Various  burs,  preferably  the  burdock  and 
cocklebur;  downy  fruits  as  the  thistle  and  dandelion; 
winged  fruit  as  the  ash,  hop  tree,  or  maple ;  capsules,  as  the 
evening  primrose,  Jimson  weed,  or  others  are  easily  obtain- 
able for  purpose  of  studying  fruit  and  seed  dispersal. 

The  burs.  1.  Examine  carefully  the  bur  with  the  naked 
eye  and  lens.  Observe  the  general  shape  and  numl)er,  size 
and  particular  form  of  the  structures  that  make  the  fruit 
a  bur. 

2.  Compare  the  burs  furnished  by  experimenting  on  your 
clothing  and  find  the  form  that  clings  most  closely.  Dis- 
cover the  reason,  if  possible,  in  the  nature  of  the  bur 
covering, 

3.  Count  the  seeds  in  each  bur  studied.  Observe,  if  pos- 
sible, plants  of  the  same  kind  growing  in  vacant  lots. 
Count  the  number  of  fruit  heads  in  a  good-sized  plant,  and 
from  these  facts  estimate  the  total  seed  production.  (See 
lesson  on  Weeds.) 

4.  Bur  plants  are  very  often  "  weeds."  From  your  obser- 
vations and  what  you  have  previously  learned  about  weeds, 
how  do  bur  plants  fill  the  requirements  of  a  "  good  weed  "  ? 

5.  Record,  from  observation  or  reading,  various  agents 
that  carry  burs  from  place  to  place.  What  advantage  to 
the  plant  is  this  dispersal  of  the  bur? 


A   MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  91 

f).  What  enemies,  if  any,  do  tliese  burs  have  ?  (You 
may  hnd  the  fruits  with   the    larva'   of   insects  in  them.) 

7.  How  long  does  it  take  each  bur  i)lant  to  mature  from 
the  seed  ? 

8.  Draw  each  bur,  natural  size,  and  the  hooks  or  struc- 
tures that  cling  to  animals. 

The  downs.  1.  Examine  carefully  a  thistle  or  other 
downy  structure.  Is  it  the  whole  fruit  or  the  single  seed 
that  bears  the  down  ? 

2.  Observe  carefully  the  number  and  size  of  the  hairy 
structures  that  nuike  the  down,  also  whether  they  are 
straight  or  wavy. 

o.  Observe  in  particular  where  the  down  is  attached 
to  the  seed.  Why  is  the  attachment  generally  above  the 
seed  ? 

4.  Float  a  specimen  in  the  air  and  observe  the  rapidity 
of  "  settling  down  "  to  the  floor.  Blow  on  the  down.  Does 
this  action  hasten  or  retard  the  process  of  sinking  ?  How 
would  the  wind  act  on  the  down  ?  What  connection  do 
you  see  between  these  observed  facts  and  the  general  dis- 
tribution of  thistles  and  dandelions  ? 

5.  Kecall,  if  possible,  the  "  cotton  "  seen  on  June  days, 
where  Cottonwood  trees  grow  in  the  neighborhood.  ^lake 
a  list  of  as  many  downy  fruits  as  you  are  acquainted 
with. 

G.  Examine  the  down  with  (Ij^)  and  observe  the  features. 
Explain,  if  you  iind  anything  worthy  of  record. 

7.  Make  drawings  of  complete  fruits  or  seeds,  natural 
size ;  also  of  one  or  more  hairs,  (m)  or  (Ij)). 

8.  Describe  clearly  and  accurately  each  down  studied. 

9.  By  reading,  discover  if  any  downs  are  of  value  to 
man. 

10.  Explain,  if  you  can,  the  results  found  in  the  following 
"  living  problem  "  taken  from  the  "  prickly  lettuce,"  a 
^'  downy  "  weed  introduced  from  Europe. 


92  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

(a)  A  square  rod  of  waste  ground  had  20  large  plants  of 
lettuce. 

(6)    Each  plant  averaged  10,000  seeds. 

(c)  The  second  year  the  plot  had  no  more  plants  than  it 
had  the  year  before. 

(d)  Why  was  there  such  an  enormous  seed  production  ? 
and 

(e)  Why  are  there   not  more  plants  on  the  original  plot? 

Note.  The  Composite  is  the  largest  family  of  plants,  and,  as  a 
rule,  the  most  abundantly  represented  by  species  in  any  locality.  The 
individuals  also  are  numerous.  Now,  as  one  half  of  Compositie  fruits 
are  down-bearing,  what  influence  would  this  have  on  the  abundance 
and  general  distribution  ?     (See  study  of  Compositse  flowers. ) 

Other  fruits.  1.  Study  the  vnnged  fruits  of  ash,  maple, 
hop  tree,  or  Ailanthus,  and  the  winged  seeds  of  pine,  spruce, 
catalpa,  or  birch.  Observe  the  size,  form,  and  adaptation  of 
each  sort  for  dispersal  by  wind.  Make  drawings  to  illustrate 
the  results  of  your  observations. 

2.  Examine  the  dry  fruits  of  the  evening  primrose,  Jimson 
weed,  poppy,  or  others  of  similar  nature.  How  are  the 
seeds  distributed?  In  these  fruits  what  do  you  discover 
about  the  size  of  the  seed  ?  Are  the  seeds  few  or  many, 
hard  or  soft? 

Conclusions.  Write  an  essay  on  the  dispersal  of  seeds, 
based  upon  the  results  of  your  observations  in  the  foregoing 
studies.     Make  your  statements  clear  and  specific. 


PART    III 

A  SURVEY  OF  THE  PLANT  KINGDOM  IN  DETAIL 

SECTION    T.      THE  ALGiEi 
Type  1.    Pleurococcus  {Pleurococcus  vulgaris) 

Habitat.  Examine  trees,  fences,  walls,  buildings,  walks, 
earth,  or  other  objects  for  a  powdery  green  coating.  In  what 
position  with  reference  to  the  sun  do  you  find  it  most 
abundant?  What  practical  application  could  be  made  of 
this  peculiarity? 

Examine  before  and  after  a  rain  and  observe  any  differ- 
ence in  appearance,  or  dampen  bark  or  wood  covered  with 
the  plant.  Compare  with  a  grass  lawn  under  the  same  con- 
ditions. 

The  green  coloring  matter  observed  in  this  plant  and  in  the  grass  is 
called  chlorophyll,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  green  color  of  connnon 
plants.  What  reason  can  you  give  for  the  increased  brightness  after 
a  rain  ? 

Study  in  detail.  Examine  with  the  lens.  What  do  you 
discover  ? 

Examine  with  the  (Jp).  Observe  the  minute,  rounded 
bodies.     What  color  have  they?     Are  they  few  or  many? 

Examine  a  temporary  mount"  with  the  {h})).  Observe  the 
following  :  — 

1  Thallus  plants  containing  chlorophyll. 

2  A  temporary  mount  is  made  by  taking  a  glass  slide,  placing  on  its 
center  a  very  small  portion  or  a  very  thin  cutting  of  the  object  to  be 
examined,  covering  with  clean  water,  and  then,  overall,  laying  a  cover 
glass.  See  to  it  that  there  is  always  a  full  supply  of  water  between 
the  two  gla.sses;  otherwise  air  will  get  in  and  spoil  the  view.  Hefer 
back  to  this  direction,  if  necessary,  in  future  studies. 

93 


94  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

1.  The  rounded  structures  (cells)  are  the  individual 
plants.  Are  they  equal  in  size?  Observe  a  clear,  outside 
layer  {cell  icall)  and  the  green-stainod  interior  {cytoplasm 
colored  with  chlorophyll.) 

2.  Observe  that  some  single  cells  are  oblong  in  form. 
What  do  you  conclude  from  these  observations? 

8.  By  moving  the  slide,  discover,  if  possible,  forms  with 
partitions,  dividing  them  into  two,  three,  or  four  parts. 

Observe,  further,  that  these  combinations  vary  much  in 
the  completeness  of  the  division  into  cells.  This  shows 
how  pleurococcus  reproduces  and  is  called  cell  division. 

Cell  division.  Cell  division  is  the  simplest  manner  by 
which  a  plant  can  reproduce  itself.  It  is  simply  the  division 
of  a  cell  into  two  parts  that  may  or  may  not  remain  tem- 
porarily attached.  This  division  may  be  repeated  for  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  times. 

Drawings  and  description.  Make  drawings  showing  all  the 
results  of  your  observations,  and  remember  that  all  drawings 
are  to  stand  the  test  of  neatness,  accuracy,  clear  outlines,  and 
proper  naming.  Write  a  careful  description,  embodying  in 
it  answers  to  ail  the  questions  asked  in  the  preceding 
sections. 

Green  plants.  Green  plants,  i.e.  those  which  contain 
chlorophyll,  are  able  to  secure  or  make  their  own  food  from 
the  mineral  substances  that  are  in  the  earth,  water,  or  air. 
Such  plants  are  independent.  Apply  this  statement  to  the 
pleurococcus.     Where  is  the  food  su})ply  taken  from? 

An  alga  is  a  plant  of  very  simple  structure  containing 
chlorophyll,  usually  living  in  the  water.  Our  plant  is  an 
alga.  Do  its  observed  habits  bear  out  this  statement  ?  In 
all  places  that  you  find  the  plant  growing,  what  can  be  said 
about  it  ?     (Refer  to  habitat.) 

3.  Algae  have  various  colors,  the  color  due  to  chlorophyll 
being  often  obscured  by  other  tints.  Pleurococcus,  how- 
ever, is  true  chlorophyll  green. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  95 

An  experiment.  Soak  some  pleurococciis  powder  in  al- 
cohol, in  a  vial  overnight,  and  study  at  the  next  laboratory 
period.  Observe  the  color  of  the  alcohol,  and  of  the  pleuro- 
coccus  cells  (/ii>).     What  conclusions  do  you  make  ? 

Some  final  questions.  1.  How  simple  may  a  plant  be  and 
yet  do  all  that  is  necessary  for  life  and  reproduction  ? 

2.  What  would  you  say  as  to  whether  pleurococcus  has 
any  "  old  age  "  or  not  ? 

3.  Why  is  this  plant  so  universally  distributed? 

4.  How  small,  actually,  is  pleurococcus  ? 

Tyi'p:s  2  AND  3.     Nostoc  axd  Oscillatorta  (or  Lyxgba) 

Habitat.  These  algjc  may  be  found  in  still  water,  espe- 
cially if  somewhat  impure.  Both  may  be  given  to  you  pre- 
served in  formaldehyde  solution.  There  are  many  forms, 
particularly  of  oscillatoria. 

Nostoc  colony.  Examine  a  nostoc  colony  (the  jelly-like 
mass),  and  observe  its  color,  form,  size,  and  consistency. 
What  does  the  naked  eye  reveal,  if  anything,  in  the  interior 
of  the  mass  ? 

Nostoc  structure.  Prepare  a  temporary  mount  and  ex- 
amine with  the  (hj)).  Observe,  scattered  through  the  jelly 
film,  numerous  necklace-like  threads  (filaments).  Examine 
carefully  for  color,  and  shape  of  cells,  and  their  variation 
in  size  and  number  in  the  necklace.  How  does  the  color 
compare  with  that  of  the  pleurococcus  ?  Are  the  cells  larger 
or  smaller  than  in  that  algie?  Observe  in  particular  larger 
cells  and  their  position  in  the  filaments.  How  do  you  ex- 
plain the  varying  position  ?  How  may  this  alga  multiply  ? 
What  use  may  the  jelbj  have  ? 

Drawings  of  noctoc.  ])ia\v  to  show  the  results  of  your 
observation. 

Oscillatoria.  Examine  oscillatoria  or  lyngba  with  the 
naked  eye.  What  do  you  find  regarding  the  general  ap- 
pearance ? 


96 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Structure.  Examine  with  the  (Ip)  or  with  the  (hp), 
according  to  the  kind  furnished,  using  as  before  a  tem- 
porary mount.  How  do  the  cells  compare  in  shape  with 
those  of  nostoc?  Are  they  more  or  less  loosely  attached  to 
each  other  ?  How  could  you  make  a  filament  like  oscilla- 
toria  from  a  nostoc  necklace  ?  What  shape  have  the  free 
ends  of  the  filament?  How  do  you  explain?  (Think  of  a 
hollow  rubber  ball.)     Observe  the  color  and  other  features. 

Drawings.  Make  sketches  showing  all  the  features  dis- 
covered. 

Comparison  of  the  algae.  Compare  pleurococcus,  nostoc, 
and  oscillatoria,  with  reference  to  the  arrangement  of  cells. 
Observe  the  change  from  single  cell  to  filament. 

Table.     Record  the  comparison  in  a  table  thus  :  — 


Grows 
Where 

Appearance 

Cell 
Form 

Name 

Eye 

???. 

COMP. 

Mic. 

Pleurococcus 
Nostoc 
Oscillatoria 
Lyngba 

Cell 
Arrangemeni 


The  blue  green  algae.  1.  Blue  green  algae  (nostoc,  oscilla- 
toria, and  many  others)  have  some  relationship  in  structure 
and  habits  to  fungi  (studied  later)  and  are  often  found  in 
water-supply  reservoirs.  Discover  their  importance  in  such 
places  and  the  methods  necessary  for  their  removal.  (Con- 
sult for  this  purpose  good  reference  books.) 

2.  These  algse  are  by  some  phiced  in  a  group  with  the 
bacteria  (to  be  studied  later),  called  the  fission  plants,  be- 
cause of  their  method  of  reproduction. 

Conclusion.     Keep  in  mind  all  these  forms.     What  really 


A  MANUAL   OV   BOTANY  97 

constitutes  the  individual  ])laiit  ?     What  observations  have 
you  made  that  form  this  couelusion? 


Typp:  4.     Hydkodictiox   (Water  Nkt) 

Habitat.  This  alga  is  found  in  comi)aratively  stagnant 
water,  and  appears  at  first  glance  much  like  the  filamentous 
algai  to  be  investigated  later  {dadoplun-a,  vancheria),  but 
study  shows  it  to  be  far  different.  It  may  be  grown  with 
considerable  success  in  aquaria. 

Structure.  Examine  (/y>)  and  m.  Observe  the  very  peculiar 
attachment  of  the  cells  to  each  other.  What  is  formed  by 
this  attachment?  AVhat  appropriateness  has  the  term 
loater  net?  What  is  the  distribution  of  the  chlorophyll? 
Compare  (in  this  particular)  with  the  vaucheria.  What  do 
you  find  regarding  the  size  of  the  nets  ?  Are  all  alike  in 
size  and  shape  of  the  "  meshes  "  ? 

Reproduction.  Examine  a  cell  of  the  largest  size  with  a 
microscope  of  comparatively  high  power.  Possibly  you 
may  find  the  contents  assuming  a  netlike  appearance. 
This  indeed  happens ;  the  old  cell  wall  breaks  down,  and  the 
tiny  net  escapes  as  a  glove-fingerlike  structure.  This  is 
the  common  method  of  reproduction.  How  will  this  ex- 
plain, in  part,  the  varying  size  of  the  nets  ?  While  examin- 
ing the  large  cell  look  for  oil  globules. 

Drawing.  Make  drawings  showing  nets  of  various  sizes; 
also  a  single  cell,  the  largest  you  are  able  to  find. 

Explanatory  note.  Water  net  is  a  remarkable  relative  of 
pleurococcu.s,  each  large  cell  producing  myriads  of  exceed- 
ingly small  zoospores  which  never  escape  from  the  large 
mother  cell,  but  finally  arrange  themselves  in  such  relation- 
ship to  each  other  that  when  they  begin  to  grow,  tiny  nets 
are  the  result.  Such  a  close  connection  of  cells,  otherwise 
independent,  is  called  a  colony. 

What  advantage  can  there  be  in  such  an  arrangement? 


98  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Is  this  condition  more  or  less  complex  than  the  simple  cell 
combinations  of  pleurococcus  ?  How  might  such  colonies 
be  useful  to  animal  life? 

Type  5.     Spirogyra  Species  ^ 

« 

Habitat.  These  plants  are  the  common  pond  scums,  seen 
in  ponds,  slow  streams,  and  ditches.  They  are  also  com- 
mon in  springs.  They  are  easily  grown  in  the  laboratory 
and  in  aquaria. 

Appearance.  Observe  the  plant  as  it  grows  in  the  aqua- 
rium jar.  Find  out  all  you  can  with  the  unaided  eye. 
What  is  its  color,  habit  of  massing  together,  and  position 
with  reference  to  the  surface?  Observe  the  presence  or 
absence  of  gas  bubbles.  With  a  forceps  take  up  a  very 
small  portion  and  observe  the  form  of  the  plant  as  you  slowly 
remove  it  from  the  water.  Press  between  thumb  and  linger 
and  observe  the  feeling.  Compare  some  standing  in  the 
shade  with  another  specimen  on  which  the  sun  is  shining. 
What  do  you  notice  ? 

Study  with  lens.  Take  a  small  portion  by  means  of  the 
forceps,  place  on  a  slide,  cover  with  water  and  a  cover 
glass  (a  temporary  mount),  and  examine  with  a  lens.  What 
do  you  find  with  regard  to  the  form  of  a  separate  or  single 
plant  OY filament?  (Your  specimen  is  probably  made  up  of 
very  many  such  plants,  about  the  real  character  of  which 
more  will  be  learned  later.) 

Experiment.  Take  a  small  portion  of  the  aquarium 
material,  place  in  a  small  vial,  pour  alcohol  on  it,  cork,  and 
set  aside.  Observe  at  the  end  of  fifteen  minutes.  What  is 
the  color  of  the  alcohol  ?  This  is  the  test  for  chlorophyll. 
Keep  your  vial  material  for  future  use. 

Structure  of  filaments  and  cells.  Examine  your  mount 
{Ip.)     What  now  do  you  observe  regarding  a  single  thread 

1  There  are  many  kinds. 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  99 

(filament)  of  the  plant?  Try  to  follow  a  single  fila- 
ment  from  end  to  end.  Look  very  carefully  for  markings 
of  any  kind  along  the  filament.  You  ought  to  be  able  to 
distinguish  two  kinds  of  these,  viz. :  (1)  cross  lines  at 
equal  distances,  really  circular  partitions  between  the  cells, 
and  (2)  what  appear  to  be  zigzag  lines.  What  are  the 
colors  of  the  two  kinds  of  lines  ?  What  color  has  the  re- 
maining ])art  of  each  cell  ? 

Demonstration  by  a  student :  Let  a  student  take  a  large 
open-moutlied  cylindrical  jar  and  with  a  piece  of  green  chalk 
draw  a  spiral  line  on  the  inner  surface.  Compare  the 
appearance  of  this  mark  with  the  ai)pearance  of  the  zigzag 
line  of  the  cell,  and  from  it  deduce  the  true  nature  and 
position  of  the  marking. 

Effect  of  iodine.  Apply  diluted  iodine  to  your  prepara- 
tion and  observe  the  change  in  appearance.  Are  the 
spiral  markings  more  or  less  distinct  than  before  ?  What 
color  do  they  now  have  ?  What  do  you  observe  scattered 
along  their  course?  These  spiral  bands  are  chloroplasts 
(green  substance)  and  the  round  or  oval  bodies  are  nodules. 

Nodules.  Examine  a  nodule  (Jqi)  in  an  unstained  speci- 
men. Examine  the  same  specimen  stained  with  iodine. 
You  observe  a  change  of  color,  really  to  a  bluish  purple, 
if  the  spirogyra  has  been  in  the  sunlight. 

Experiment.  Take  a  little  starch,  mix  with  water,  and 
add  a  drup  of  dilute  iodine.  What  do  you  observe  and 
what  do  you  now  infer  concerning  nodules  ?  The  experi- 
ment is  the  test  for  starch.     Eemember  it. 

Cell  structure  (hj)).  With  an  iodine  stained  specimen  and 
(hp)  examine  the  cell  very  carefully  for  a  brownish  body 
near  the  center,  the  nucleus.  Observe  if  possible  its  exact 
shape,  the  strands  attaching  it  to  the  spiral  band,  and  a 
round  spot,  the  nucleolus,  within  it.  Observe  any  irregularity 
of  the  chloroplast  and  how  it  terminates  at  each  end  of  the 
cell.     Does  it  continue  into  the  next  cell  or  does  it  stop  ? 


100  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

What  transparent  substance  might  occupy  the  seemingly 
unoccupied  parts  of  the  cell  ?  This  seemingly  unoccupied 
space  in  the  cell  is  in  reality  filled  with  cell  liquid  and  is 
often  called  the  vacuole. 

End  of  filament.  Examine  the  end  of  a  filament,  (Ip)  or 
(hj)).     What  is  the  shape  of  the  end?     Explain,  if  possible. 

Species  of  spirogyra.  Examine  different  kinds  of  spiro- 
gyra  for  varying  numbers  of  chloroplasts.  How  many 
kinds  do  you  discover  ?  How  do  they  compare  with  refer- 
ence to  size,  color,  or  cell  structures  other  than  the  chloro- 
plasts ?  Such  differing  kinds  are  called  species.  Spirogyra 
is  a,geniis  name.  The  two  names  with  the  genus  first,  followed 
by  the  species,  constitute  the  scientific  name.  All  plants 
have  such  names  in  universal  use. 

Reproduction.  Conjugating  spirogyra.  If  specimens  are 
given  to  you  showing  conjugation,  look  for  the  parallel  fila- 
ments, the  short  tubes  (conjugating  tubes)  connecting  adja- 
cent cells;  also  any  change  in  the  cell  contents.  These 
cells  which  are  uniting  by  the  connecting  tube  are  called 
gametes  and  the  process  shown  is  known  as  sexual  reproduc- 
tion, or  the  production  by  cell  union  of  a  spore  (called  by 
various  names,  zygospore,  zygote,  and  later,  oospore).  Plants 
or  cells  (in  plants  consisting  of  single  cells)  thus  uniting  are 
known  as  gametophytes.  In  spirogyra,  although  a  filament 
of  many  cells  constitutes  the  plant  body,  in  reality,  each 
cell  of  sucli  a  filament  can  exist  independently.  If  you  see 
dark  oval  bodies  in  tlie  cells,  the  other  paired  cells  being 
empty,  they  are  the  oospores,  or  reproductive  cells,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  cell  contents  of  the  two  connected  cells. 
If  possible,  note  the  various  stages  in  the  process.  Read 
about  the  purpose  of  these  cells  in  the  life  history  of 
spirogyra. 

Drawings.  Make  the  following  drawings  to  show  the 
results  of  your  observations :  (1)  a  mass  as  it  appears  with 
hand  lens;  (2)  a  filament  of  at  least  ten  cells  (?p) ;   (3)  a 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  101 

cell  with  parts  of  those  adjacent  {h[)) ;  (4)  same  as  (3),  but 
stained  with  iodine;  (5)  an  end  cell  {Jp) ;  (G)  cells  of  other 
species  of  spirogyra;  (7)  conjugating  spirogyra  (Jp)  and 
oospores  {hp) ;  (8)  filament  after  application  of  salt  solu- 
tion ;  (9)  cell  division  (if  observed)  (Ip). 

Cell  division.  In  spirogyra  that  is  fresh  and  bright  green, 
try  to  discover  in  the  same  filament  lonrj  and  short  cells. 
How  could  you  obtain  the  short  cells  from  the  long 
ones  ?  If  you  find  such  a  condition,  it  means  the  repro- 
duction of  the  filament  by  vegetation,  multiplication,  or  cell 
division.  In  this  method  how  could  a  single  filament,  in 
time,  fill  a  small  si)ring  or  pool  ? 

Experiments.  To  fresh  living  s[)irogyra,  temporarily 
mounted,  add  strong  solutions  of  sugar  or  salt,  and  observe 
the  effect  on  the  chloroplast  band  and  other  cell  contents. 
An  action  called  plasmolysis  is  taking  place;  read  about 
this  in  reference  books. 

Examine  material  growing  in  bright  sunlight.  Try  to 
perfect  some  plan  for  obtaining  the  gas  thrown  off.  (In- 
structor may  arrange  experiment,  with  the  idea  of  determin- 
ing the  nature.)  The  plant  is  making  food  from  the  minerals 
in  the  water  by  means  of  its  chlorophyll-stained  cytoplasm, 
the  sunlight  being  the  direct  stimulus.  The  gas  thrown 
off  is  waste  matter  (to  the  plant  in  this  process)  and  is, 
at  least  in  large  part,  oxygen.  The  process  is  called  7>/io?o- 
synthesis,  which  is  the  food-making  process  of  all  chlorophyll 
plants. 

Problems.  1.  What  effect  would  this  alga  have  on  the 
purity  of  pond  water  ?  What  benefits  would  come  to  the 
animals  living  in  such  water  ? 

2.  Why  does  it  grow  in  relatively  quiet  waters  ? 

3.  Why  does  it  not  grow  in  the  ocean  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  not  a  good  plant  for  the  aquaria  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  often  called  "brook  silk  "  ? 

6.  Why  does  it  make  starch  '* 


102 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Type  6.     Zygnema  ' 

Habitat  and  appearance.  The  plant  grows  in  localities 
similar  in  nature  to  those  where  spirogyra  is  found.  It 
may  often  be  distinguished  by  its  yellow  hue.  It  is  easily 
grown  in  the  laboratory. 

Structure.  Examine  a  very  small  portion  of  the  alga 
(remember  that  all  the  green  water  plants,  or  scums,  and 
the  pleurococcus,  besides  many  otlier  forms,  all  containing 
chlorophyll  and  living  in  water,  and  lowest  in  the  plant 
scale,  bear  this  name)  and  treat  it  as  you  did  spirogyra,  (m), 
(Ij)),  (Jip),  unstained  and  iodine-stained.  Observe  that  the 
cells  are  shorter  relatively  than  those  in  spirogyra,  and 
especially  observe  the  very  different  form  of  the  two  clilo- 
roplasts  found  in  each  cell.  Examine  very  carefully  and 
see  if  you  cannot  compare  the  chloroplast  to  an  irregular, 
many-pointed  star. 

By  very  close  observation  find  an  almost  transparent 
connection  between  the  chloroplasts,  containing  within  it  the 
nucleus.  This  feature  is  seen  more  easily  in  the  iodine- 
stained  preparation. 

Reproduction.  This  alga  reproduces  as  spirogyra  does. 
Seek  for  either  form  of  reproduction  found  in  that  plant. 
Make  careful  drawings  covering  the  important  features 
you  have  discovered. 

Comparison,  ('ompare  spirogyra  and  zygnema  by  means 
of  this  table  :  — 


Name 


Spirogyra 
Zygnema 


Color 


Feemng 


Cell  Ratio. 
Length  of 
Diameter 


Size 


CULORO- 
PLA8T8 


1  A  plant  allied  to  spirogyra. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  103 

The  green  algae.  Observe  for  spirogyra,  zygnema,  and  all 
other  green  (as  distinguished  from  tlie  hlue  green  forms,  as 
oscilhitoria)  alga3,  that  the  water  in  which  they  grow,  how- 
ever unsightly  the  floating  plants  may  appear,  seems  to  be 
very  clear  and  bright,  and  is,  in  fact,  reasonably  pure  and 
well  adapted  to  animal  life.  How  do  you  explain  this  by 
the  results  of  the  preceding  studies?  What  relation  may 
these  algre  have  to  animal  life?  How  may  the  pond  scums 
be  injurious  to  man? 

Plants  living  in  water  are  called  hydrophytes.  How  does 
their  environment  benefit  them  ?  Carefully  consider  this 
subject,  for  it  brings  to  you  a  new  field  of  work  called 
Ecology,  or  the  relation  of  a  living  organism  to  all  its  sur- 
roundings, mineral,  plant,  and  animal.  These  algte  are  the 
lowest  members  of  the  water  association. 

Type  7.     Desmids 

Habitat.  These  very  small  algae  are  more  or  less  common 
in  sluggish  streams,  ponds,  and  ditches,  where  water  plants 
are  plentiful.  They  may  be  obtained  in  some  abundance  by 
dipping  water  from  such  situations,  particularly  from  near 
the  bottom,  and  straining  it  through  a  fine  meshed  cloth. 
After  straining  it  through  the  cloth,  put  the  sediment  into 
bottles  with  a  little  water. 

Structure.  As  these  plants  are  practically  invisible  to  the 
unaided  eye,  the  compound  microscope  is  necessary.  Examine 
the  material  provided,  (Ij^)  <^r  Q^P))  ^^^^  seek  for  small  sym- 
metrical objects,  green  in  color.  Study  carefully  this 
symmetry  of  form.  How  does  it  manifest  itself?  Ex- 
amine the  cell  wall  for  any  mark  or  peculiar  feature  that 
would  cause  the  symmetry.  How  is  the  chlorophyll  ar- 
ranged ?  Is  it  in  any  way  covered  up  or  concealed  ?  Try 
to  remove  it  by  repeated  treatment  with  alcohol.  If  you 
are  able  to  decolorize  it,  apply  dilute  iodine  and  observe 
the  results  in  the  remaining  cell  contents. 


104  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Movement  of  cytoplasm.  Look  in  particular  for  any 
movement  of  the  cytoplasm,  especially  near  the  clear  ends 
of  the  crescent  form,  Closterium ;  this  feature  is  cell 
circulation.  Look  for  any  movement  of  the  entire  cell. 
This  is  quite  often  manifest.  If  observed,  watch  carefully 
for  some  time  to  see  if  you  can  discover  the  method. 

Reproduction.  Look  for  cells  in  the  process  of  division, 
the  common  method  of  reproduction.  Occasionally,  conju- 
gation of  two  individuals  occurs.     Consult  reference  books. 

Drawings.  Make  drawings  showing  different  forms  you 
have  seen,  also  any  other  features  o))served. 

Use  of  plant.  Of  what  use  may  these  small  plants  be 
in  the  economy  of  nature  ?     (The  economic  importance.) 

Classification.  The  three  algae  last  enumerated,  and  studies 
of  which  are  given,  are  related  forms  and  belong  to  a  group 
of  algae  called  the  Conjugate.  This  introduces  to  your  atten- 
tion the  arrangement  of  all  plants  in  groups,  large  or  small, 
and  this  arrangement  is  called  classification. 

The  group  names  commonly  used  are,  from  the  highest  to 
the  lowest,  as  follows ;  kingdom,  branch,  class,  order,  family, 
genus,  species,  and  finally  the  individual.  The  scientific 
name  (  used  the  world  over  for  accurate  designation)  consists 
of  the  genus  and  species  names,  the  latter  written  after  the 
former.  From  time  to  time  you  will  be  given  appropriate 
examples  to  familiarize  you  with  such  names,  and  to  learn 
their  value  in  the  description  of  plants.     (  See  spirogyra.) 

Type   8.     Cladophora^ 

Habitat.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  all  algae, 
being  abundant  in  ponds,  ditches  and  on  rocks  in  streams 
and  brooks,  and  on  rocks  and  piling  of  the  Great  Lakes.  It 
is  also  found  in  ocean  water.  It  is  of  the  easiest  culture  in 
aquaria. 

1  Branch  bearing. 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  105 

Appearance.  Examine  by  feeling  and  with  the  naked  eye. 
How  do  the  fihxnients  compare  in  size  and  color  with  those 
of  the  algae  already  studied  ?  Observe  whether  it  normally 
floats  free,  or  is  attached. 

Structure.  Examine  (/^:>).  Observe  the  color,  also  the 
distribution  of  the  chloroplasts,  the  thick  cell  walls,  and 
the  oil  globules.  Trace  a  filament  for  some  distance.  Is  it 
simple  or  branched?  Would  you  consider  this  plant  more 
or  less  complex  than  spirogyra?  Give  some  reasons  for  the 
answer.  Where  do  the  branches  always  originate  with  refer- 
ence to  the  part  of  the  cell  from  which  they  come  ?  What 
shape  has  each  branch  ? 

Look  carefully  for  cells  in  the  filament  that  are  divid- 
ing. Where  are  they  situated  ?  (  Cladophora  grows  in  size 
by  the  elongation  of  the  cell  tips  with  subsequent  division. 
Branches  ai-e  formed  in  the  same  manner.  The  plant  rapidly 
increases  in  size  in  this  manner  and  by  breaking  up  forms 
new  plants.) 

Associated  algae.  Commonly  attached  to  the  filament  are 
many  small  brown  structures  (diatoms)  or  one-celled  brown 
algae.     Remember  this  when  the  diatoms  are  studied. 

Drawings.  Make  drawings  showing  the  results  of  your 
study. 

Reproduction.  This  alga  reproduces  by  zoospore  formation, 
which  always  occurs  at  night  and  hence  is  seldom  seen. 
Single  cells  give  rise  to  spores  having  cilia  (called  by  the 
above  name)  which  move  about  for  a  time;  then,  after  a 
period  of  rest,  germinate  and  form  new  filaments.  Under 
certain  conditions  these  spores,  also  called  zoogonidia,  unite 
(conjugate),  producing  an  oospore  (zygospore  of  many 
authors),  which  in  time  produces  a  new  filament. 

What  advantage  is  the  double  method  of  reproduction? 

Nature  of  filament.  The  cells  of  this  alga,  while  quite 
similar  to  each  other,  do  not  all  do  the  same  work;  certain 
basal  ones  serving  for  attachment  to  rocks,  etc.,  terminal 


106  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

cells  elongate  aiul  divide,  and  others  produce  swimming 
zoospores.  Tliis  alga,  therefore,  is  not  a  collection  of  cells, 
almost  or  quite  independent  (as  in  spirogyra),  but  is  truly  a 
many-celled  plant. 

Type  9.     Vauchekia^ 

A  BRANCHED  ALGA 

Habitat.  One  species  of  this  alga  is  a  common  form  about 
springs,  tile  drains,  in  clear  ditches,  and  other  similar  places. 
Another  form  is  very  common  on  the  ground  among  carna- 
tions and  other  thickly  bedded  plants  in  greenhouses.  It 
is  a  rare  alga  in  the  school  aquarium,  on  account  of  the 
great  difficulty  of  growing  it  in  such  confined  places. 

Appearance.  Examine  material  brought  from  the  green- 
house or  other  source.  Observe  the  color  and  general 
appearance  of  the  plant  as  it  grows,  and  in  particular,  the 
matted  appearance  of  the  patches,  particularly  evident  in 
the  water  form. 

Examine  mounted  specimens,  both  land  and  water  forms, 
if  they  are  accessible,  (Ip).  Select  as  bright  and  fresh 
green  a  filament  as  can  be  found,  and  trace  it,  if  possible, 
from  end  to  end.  Observe  the  form  of  the  growing  tips ; 
also  seek  for  branches,  and  if  found,  observe  the  angle  they 
form  with  the  main  filament.  Carefully  observe  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  chlorophyll.  Seek  for  any  evidence  of 
cross  cell  partitions.  (The  plant  is,  in  theory,  many-celled. 
At  least  it  possesses  many  nuclei.) 

Examine  portion  of  the  filament  (hp)  for  the  chloroplasts 
and  oil  globules. 

You  will  find  practically  the  same  features  in  both  forms, 
except  that  all  parts  are  larger  and  more  vigorous  in  growth 
in  the  water  species. 

Germinating  spores.     Among  the  filaments  examined  seek 

1  Green  Felt. 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  107 

for  oval  or  globular  bodies  with  green  filaments  grow- 
ing from  one  or  both  ends.  These  structures,  if  found,  are 
(jerminatimj  spores,  (i)robably  zoospores)  showing  how  the 
plant  grows  from  these  reproductive  structures. 

Rhizoids.  In  the  land  material  mentioned  above,  seek  for 
root-like  branched  structures.  If  found,  what  color  have 
they?  What  might  be  the  use  of  the  same?  Recall  where 
the  plant  grows.  Seek  for  the  same  in  the  water  material. 
These  structures  are  rhizoids. 

Sexual  reproduction.  On  either  kind  of  material,  seek  for 
short  branches,  api)roximately  at  right  angles  to  the  filament, 
but  differing  in  arrangement  of  the  two  coni})onent  parts  in 
the  two  kinds  under  consideration.  In  the  greenhouse  form 
there  are  two  branches,  adjacent,  one  round  or  oval,  and  the 
other  cylindrical  and  strongly  curved,  which  finally  unites 
its  tip  with  the  spherical  body.  This  latter  body  is  the 
oogonium  containing  the  female  gamete  (uniting  cell)  or 
oosphere  and  the  curved  body  is  the  antheridium  contain- 
ing the  male  gametes.  Observe  whether  these  structures 
are  marked  off  from  the  main  filament  by  a  cell  wall  or  not. 
What  color  has  each?  In  the  mature  antheridium,  find 
some  that  have  lost  their  contents.  What  has  become  of 
the  same?  The  result  of  this  reproductive  process,  by  the 
union  of  the  contents  of  two  cells,  is  a  sexual  spore,  or 
oospore  which  is  a  structure  th<at  commonly  remains  dor- 
mant for  some  time  (resting  spore)  before  germinating. 
What  use  could  they  serve  in  the  plant  history  ?  Observe 
the  thickness  of  the  cell  wall  of  the  oospore.  Why  is  the 
wall  so  thick?  If  the  form  is  the  one  growing  in  water, 
both  gametes  organs  are  found  on  the  same  branch,  and 
there  are  several  oogonia. 

Drawings.  ISIake  the  following  drawings  if  the  material 
will  permit :  — 

1.  A  complete  filament  with  its  branches  and  growing 
tips. 


108  REPRESENTATIVE    PLANTS 

2.  A  portion  of  a  filament  (hj)). 

3.  Germinating  zoospores  (Ip). 
■4.    Rhizoids  (Ijy). 

5.  Different  stages  in  the  formation  of  antheridia,  oogonia, 
and  oospores  (I})). 

Observations  in  conclusion.  Observe,  by  feeling,  the  rough- 
ness of  this  alga  as  c*omi)ared  to  spirogyra,  hence  its  com- 
mon name,  "  green  felt."  Observe  the  numerous  small 
animals  that  swim  about  among  the  filaments  comparable 
to  wild  animals  in  a  forest.  These  are  of  many  kinds^  the 
lowest  forms  of  animal  life  (infusoria,  etc.).  Of  what  ad- 
vantage to  the  animals  may  this  growth  of  algae  be  ? 

Plants  with  filamentous  plant  body,  many  nuclei,  but 
Avithout  apparent  cross  partitions  are  called  Cienocytes. 
Compare  with  inucor. 

Sujjplementary   Observations  on  Filamentous  Algoe. 
Experiments 

1.  Observe  the  bubbles  constantly  given  off  by  these 
plants  when  in  the  sunshine.  Collect  the  gas  by  placing 
vigorous  cladophora  in  an  inverted  test  tube  tilled  with 
water.  Support  the  tube  so  that  the  lower  end  is  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  aquarium  jar.  The  process 
will  be  very  slow,  but  when  enougli  gas  is  collected,  remove, 
under  instructions  of  your  teacher,  and  test  with  a  glowing 
wood  splinter  thrust  into  the  gas.  What  happens  and 
what  gas  causes  such  action?  Or  fill  a  test  tube  with 
water,  invert  and  insert  a  short-stemmed  glass  funnel  stem 
into  the  tube,  and  fasten  the  whole  over  vigorous  algae. 
This  plan  hastens  the  collection  of  the  gas.  These  methods, 
at  the  best,  furnish  a  very  slow  accumulation  of  gas,  pos- 
sibly much  mixed  with  air.  In  this  gas  making,  the  plant 
is  engaged  in  the  very  important  work  of  preparing  food 
for  its  own  use.     Th,e  crude  materials  are  water  and  carbon 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  109 

dioxide.  Where  does  the  plant  obtain  those  substances '/ 
From  them  starch  or  oil  is  made.  Observe  whether  tlie 
bubbles  are  formed  when  the  alga  is  in  a  dark  corner  of  the 
room  or  early  in  the  morning.  From  the  results  of  these 
observations  what  seems  to  be  necessary  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  gas  (which  is  a  waste  product)  and  the 
process  of  food  making  which  produces  the  gas  ? 

2.  The  water  and  carbon  dioxide  for  the  manufacture  of 
starch  or  carbohydrate  food  is  taken  into  the  cell  of  the 
alga  through  the  cell  wall  according  to  the  laws  of  absorp- 
tion or  osmosis,  a  physical  phenomenon  somewhat  difficult 
to  understand.  A  number  of  experiments  tend  to  illustrate 
the  principle,  but  all  are  rather  elaborate  and  may  with  pro- 
priety be  demonstrated  before  the  class.  You  ought  to 
consult  the  textbooks  to  find  out  what  experiments  they 
give  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  them  you  may  be  able  to 
perform  without  aid.  This  simple  procedure  you  certainly 
can  carry  out :  Soak  a  well-dried  raisin,  bean,  prune,  or 
currant  in  water  and  observe  the  result.  This  in  a  homely 
way  illustrates  food  absorption  by  algae  and  all  other 
plants.      How  did  the  water  get  into  the  fruit  or  seed? 

3.  In  all  these  experiments  you  will  find  that  a  mem- 
brane (fruit  or  seed  coat  in  the  last)  separates  a  thin  liquid 
(of  small  comparative  density)  from  a  much  denser,  com- 
monly liquid,  substance,  and  that  a  marked  flow  of  the  thin 
liquid  through  the  membrane  into  the  denser  substance  is 
the  first  phenomenon  apparent  to  the  eye. 

4.  In  the  algae  we  have  the  dense  cell  cytoplasm  —  the 
cell  wall  and  the  surrounding  water  with  the  dissolved 
minerals  and  other  food  materials. 


Habitat.     The  jjlants  studied  in  this  exercise  are  common 
on  the  rocky  shores  of  New  England.     In  the  interior  they 
^  Ascophyllum  or  Fucus. 


110  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

may  be  seen  in  large  fish  and  sea-food  stores,  having  been 
shipped  as  packing  for  lobsters,  crabs,  and  other  sea  foods. 

General  appearance.  Examine  the  specimens  furnished 
and  observe  the  peculiar  feeling  and  consistency  of  the  whole 
plant.  Of  what  does  the  consistency  remind  you?  The 
plants  grow  at  tide  level,  where  wave  action  is  very  strong. 
How  does  the  general  nature  of  the  plant  fit  it  for  such  a 
place  of  growth  ?  Observe  enlargements  here  and  thereon 
the  main  axis.  Cut  one  open.  What  is  it  ?  What  can  be 
its  purpose?  These  structures  are  bladders.  What  is  the 
color  of  the  plants?  How  does  it  vary  from  end  to  end? 
Being  an  alga,  it  must  contain  chlorophyll.  How  do  you 
exi)lain  the  color  observed  ? 

Branching  and  main  axis.  Examine  the  branching.  What 
do  you  observe  on  drawing  a  plan,  showing  all  the  branches, 
properly  proportioned?  Such  a  method  of  branching 
is  called  dichotomous.  Examine  the  main  axis,  and 
observe  whether  a  holdfast  at  the  large  end  as  present  or 
not.  The  axis  may  or  may  not  have  a  central  line  or  ridge, 
the  midrib,  and  a  lateral  expansion,  ivings,  according  to  the 
kind  studied. 

Branchlets  and  conceptacles.  Examine  the  final  divisions 
of  the  axis,  which  in  ascophyllum,  in  particular,  feel  like 
the  bladders.  Cut  one  open.  Is  it  hollow?  These  struc- 
tures may  be  called  branchlets.  Examine  attentively  and 
observe  the  minute  brown  spots  or  dots  scattered  over  their 
surface,  or  collected  numerously  in  some  branchlets.  These 
are  concex)tacles  and  contain  the  reproductive  gametes.  In 
fucus  the  fertile  branchlets  (bearing  conceptacles)  are  quite 
distinct,  and  commonly  in  pairs. 

Reproduction.  Examine  {Ip)  or  {lip)  prepared  conceptacles, 
and  observe  the  anfheridia  and  oogonia.  Their  full  explan- 
ation may  properly  be  left  to  the  instructor  as  special 
preparations  are  required  in  order  to  see  all  the  reproductive 
structures  plainly. 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY 


111 


Consult  also  your  reference  books  for  the  reproduction  of 
these  seaweeds. 

Drawings.  Draw  the  whole  plant,  or  both  species,  if  ac- 
cessible, naming  all  the  parts ;  also  a  branchlet  enlarged, 
showing  conceptacles,  and  these  structures  from  microscopic 
preparations,  charts,  or  lantern  screen. 

Economic  value  of  algae.  At  this  time  it  will  be  a  valuable 
piece  of  work  for  you  to  hnd  out  all  you  can  aVjout  the  use 
of  the  rockweed  in  the  products  made  from  it  and  how,  in 
particular,  the  Japanese  use  it  and  kindred  seaweeds  for  a 
large  number  of  purposes.  Consult  all  the  reference  books 
at  your  command  and  record  the  results  of  your  reading  in 
the  form  of  a  table,  using  the  following  plan  :  — 


Name  of  Seaweed 


Where  Founi 


Natire  of  the  Use 

MADE   OF    It 


Name  of  the 
Prouict 


In  this  connection  investigate  further  regarding  the  uses 
alga?  may  have  in  the  economy  of  nature,  or  their  beneficial 
or  injurious  effects  on  associated  plant  or  animal  life. 
Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  Sargasso  Sea. 


Type  11.     Diatoms 

Where  found.  These  microscopic  brown  algae  are  abun- 
dant in  ponds, —  near  the  bottom,  —  in  springs,  ditches  and 
streams,  on  all  vegetation.  Very  common  on  some  filamen- 
tous algj^e,  as  cladophora.  Very  abundant  as  fossils,  forming 
diatomaceous  earths.  AEany  may  be  obtained  in  the  folhjwing 
manner :  Fix  over  a  hydrant  a  fine-meshed  cotton  cloth  and 
permit  the  water  to  run  through  for  some  time.  Observe 
the  sediment  on  dhe  cloth  and  examine   (//>)  and   {hp)  for 


112  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

diatoms.  A  useless  experiment  in  water  systems  supplied 
by  wells,  but  almost  certain  to  yield  good  results  from  lake 
or  river  sources  of  supply.  From  some  source  obtainable, 
make  a  temporary  mount  and  study  carefully  the  profusion 
of  objects  that  appear  under  the  microscope.  Examine  as 
many  forms  as  you  are  able  to  find  in  the  mixture.  What 
is  the  color?  Observe  that  many  are  transparent  (these  are 
dead).  Use  (Ip)  or  Qq))  as  necessary.  Observe  the  similarity 
of  the  ends.  If  possible,  study  the  same  diatom  on  differ- 
ent surfaces.  Compare  with  a  box  and  lid  for  similarity 
of  form.  Eind,  if  possible,  many  fine  lines.  Draw  the 
various  forms  and  varying  views  of  the  same  form.  Ob- 
serve the  free  brown  forms  for  a  slow  motion ;  also  that 
some  forms  are  attached  by  stalks.  Consult  the  books  re- 
garding the  cause  of  this  boatlike  motion. 

Fossil  diatoms.  Consult  all  the  references  to  diatoms  you 
can  find.  What  use  is  made  of  fossil  diatoms  ?  What  is 
the  substance  in  the  diatom  that  makes  it  thus  valuable  ? 
What  is  diatomaceous  earth  ?  How  do  you  account  for  the 
great  accumulations  of  this  material  ?  What  reasons  can 
you  find  for  such  peculiar  cell  structure  ? 

Type  12.     Red  Seaweeds 

General  statement.  These  often  very  beautiful  forms  of 
algae  are  common  along  the  shores  of  both  oceans,  and  are 
often  seen  mounted  on  paper  as  souvenirs  of  seashore  visits. 
They  are  often  highly  complex  and  exceedingly  varied  in 
form.  Unless  well  supplied  with  fresh  material,  the  question 
of  reproduction  will  be  out  of  place  in  the  laboratory.  Only 
the  more  easily  observed  features  will  therefore  be  noted  in 
this  exercise. 

Appearance.  Observe  the  wonderful  variety  of  forms 
assumed,  flattened,  ribbonlike,  filamentous,  feathery,  coral- 
like, and  decide  what  forms  your  specimens  show.     Also 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  113 

observe  the  variety  of  colors.  Observe,  in  particular,  tli« 
manner  of  branching,  and  compare  with  that  of  the  rockweed. 

Experiment.  Wet  some  dried  specimens  and  note  the 
rapidity  of  t\\Q  fresheninrj-uj)  process.  Also  that  some  forms 
are  gelatinous,  or  very  mucilaginous.  If  at  hand,  treat  Irish 
moss  in  the  manner  suggested  and  observe  the  results. 

Drawings.  Draw' i)ortions  of  several  forms  and  briefly 
describe,  or  take  notes  sufficiently  full  to  characterize  each 
kind  drawn. 

Reading.  Read  about  the  seaweeds  in  good  reference 
books.  Why  is  it  that  these  algcC  do  not  show  any  green 
color  ?  How  can  you  show  experimentally  that  the  plants 
contain  chlorophyll  ?  Of  what  advantage  is  the  red  color  ? 
Find  out  any  uses  to  which  these  plants  are  put  by  man. 

Type  13.     Chara 

Habitat.  The  plant  grows  abundantly  in  ponds,  slow 
streams,  and  lakes.  Very  common  in  park  ponds  and  lakes, 
often  causing  much  damage  and  necessitating  removal.  It 
is  found  at  all  depths  from  six  inches  to  twenty  or  more 
feet.     It  is  not  easily  grown  in  laboratory  aquaria. 

Appearance.  Examine  the  plant  as  it  grows  (if  possible) 
and  observe  its  color,  appearance,  and  direction  of  growth, 
whether  floating  or  erect.  Take  some  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  rub  and  observe  result.  Smell  of  a  fresh  mass 
of  the  plant.  What  effect  or  purpose  may  this  odor  have  ? 
Place  some  dried  specimens  in  a  vial  and  add  diluted  hydro- 
chloric acid.  AVhat  do  you  observe  ?  How  do  you  explain  ? 
What  advantage  to  the  plant  may  this  condition  of  the  stem 
be? 

Parts  of  the  plant.  Trace  a  main  axis,  often  called  a  stem, 
throughout  its  length.  Observe  at  intervals  a  tchorl  (circle) 
of  branches,  and  here  and  there  a  secondary  smaller  axis 
bearing  similar  whorls.     How  many  branches  in  a  whorl? 


114  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

How  do  tlie  whorls  compare  in  the  length  of  branches  as 
you  approach  the  top  or  tijj  of  the  axis?  The  very  tip 
looks  like  a  bud  and  is  called  the  apical  hud.  The  branches 
arise  from  the  nodes  and  that  part  of  the  axis  between  two 
consecutive  nodes  is  called  an  internode.  How  do  these 
compare  in  length  from  end  to  end? 

Structure.  Examine  a  branch  (Ip)  and  study  the  nodes 
and  internodes.  How  many  branches  at  each  node?  What 
do  you  observe  on  looking  at  the  branch  surface?  Look 
now  at  the  surface  of  the  main  axis,  and  observe  the  similar- 
ity of  each  to  the  other.  You  ought  to  see  elongated  cells 
more  or  less  spirally  arranged.  Examine  a  branchlet  for  cell 
structure.  The  cells  noted  above  in  the  main  axis  and 
branch  are  called  cortical  cells. 

Reproductive  bodies.  In  material  having  gamete  bodies 
observe  on  a  branch,  at  each  node,  two  forms  of  reproduc- 
tive structures,  the  female  gamete  (oosphere  or  oogonium) 
above,  and  the  male  gamete  (antheridium)  below  the  branch- 
lets.  How  do  these  differ  from  each  other  in  form,  size, 
color,  and  markings? 

Observe  the  oosphere  more  attentively,  and  find,  if  possi- 
ble, spiral  cells  on  the  outside,  and  a  large  central  cell 
within  (oospore),  also  a  lobed  margin  or  mouth.  Crush 
an  antheridium  and  observe  the  plates  composing  it,  also 
the  strange  jointed  filaments  or  sperms  (those  under  water 
move  about,  some  entering  into  and  uniting  with  the  oosphere 
to  produce  the  oospore).  The  oospore,  on  germination, 
produces  a  new  plant. 

Section  of  stem.  Study  a  section  of  the  axis  (Ip))  and  ob- 
serve a  large  central  internodcd  cell  and  a  layer  of  outside 
cortical  cells.     Compare  with  the  parts  of  the  oogonium. 

Drawings.  Draw  a  plant,  natural  size,  with  the  details, 
showing  a  node,  branches,  branchlets,  parts  of  the  adjacent 
internodes,  and  a  cross  section  of  the  axis  (/jv).  Also  a  fertile 
branch  bearing  the  antheridia  and  the  oogonia,  and  details 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  115 

of  the  reproductive  structures,  plates,  sperms,  and  an  en- 
larged oogonium,  all  (Ip). 

Marl.  Many  small  lakes  supjjort  a  vast  growth  of  this 
plant,  and  it  in  reality  produces  from  the  chemical  elements 
found  in  the  water  a  carbonate  of  lime  preparation  mixed 
with  other  elements  that  foi-m  marl.  Ascertain  the  value 
and  use  of  marl  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement. 

SECTION    11.     THE    FLNGP 
Type  1.    Yeast  ^ 

Yeast  preparations.  Examine  different  forms  of  yeast 
preparations  furnished  by  the  instructor,  as  yeast  cakes, 
compressed  yeast,  and  liquid  yeast.  Observe  in  each  the 
peculiar  odor.  Where  is  yeast  obtained  ?  Find  out  some- 
thing, if  you  can,  about  its  preparation  on  a  large  scale  for 
the  market.  Ask  your  grocer  how  long  he  can  keep  the 
different  kinds  of  yeasts.  Find  out  how  some  of  your 
bread-making  friends  make  yeast,  and  decide,  after  careful 
comparison  with  the  following  study,  if,  after  all,  it  is 
really  made,  or  is  something  that  is  grown  or  prepared. 

Home  experiments.  jNlix  for  yourself,  at  home,  yeast  of 
some  sort  with  water,  a  little  flour,  and  a  small  amount  of 
sweetening,  and  place  where  the  mixture  will  remain  warm. 
Examine  frequently  the  results. 

Note.  If  possible,  put  the  mixture  in  a  deep,  wide-moutliod  bottle 
that  can  be  corked.  When  freshly  mixed,  light  a  taper  and  insert  in 
the  bottle  for  a  moment  only.  After  the  yeast  begins  to  foam  or 
bnbble  freely,  cork  for  some  hours ;  then  remove  the  cork  and  quickly 
insert  the  taper  lighted.  Compare  with  the  results  of  the  first  trial. 
What  gas  is  being  made  by  the  yeast  ':*  Compare  by  breathing  into  a 
deep,  clean  bottle,  and  then  trying  the  lighted  taper  for  results. 

Microscopic  structure.  Examine  some  prepared  yeast  mix- 
ture with  (Ip),  and  particularly  with  (hp),  and  observe  the 

1  Thallus  plants  without  chlorophyll.      -  An  imperfect  fungus. 


116  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

size  and  shape  of  the  yeast  cells  (really  one-celled  plants). 
Do  you  find  chlorophyll  ?  (The  lower  forms  of  plants  lack- 
ing this  green  color  are  called  fungi.)  Observe  a  large 
round  mark  in  the  cell,  a  vacuole  or  vescicle,  and  surround- 
ing this  a  more  or  less  granular  cytoplasm  (all  the  cell 
features  ordinarily  visible). 

Effect  of  iodine.  Mixed  with  the  yeast  are  larger,  more 
irregular  cells,  with  lines  on  the  surface  (starch  cells).  Add 
dilute  iodine,  and  observe  the  result  to  the  yeast  and  starch 
cells.  Examine  for  cells  of  different  sizes  and  cells  of 
various  sizes  placed  end  to  end  (as  in  a  chain).  This  is  re- 
production by  budding. 

Caution.     Do  not  mistake  accidental  contact  for  real  chains. 

Drawings.  Draw  yeast  and  starch  cells  and  yeast  chains, 
scale  of  ^  in.  for  smaller  cells. 

Bread  and  yeast.  Study  bread  making  in  the  books,  and 
explain  the  part  that  yeast  plays  in  this  operation.  What 
effect  has  baking  the  bread  on  the  yeast  plants  ?  In  what 
great  industries  does  yeast  have  an  important  share  ?  In 
what  ways  may  yeasts  be  injurious  or  harmful  to  man  ? 
How  may  their  presence  or  growth  be  prevented  ?  Consult 
the  subject  of  fermentation. 

Experiments  and  problems.  Place  a  small  and  equal  por- 
tion of  a  compressed  yeast  cake  in  each  of  four  bottles,  viz. : 

1.  Filled  with  distilled  water. 

2.  Filled  with  Sach's  nutritive  solution  (for  green  plants, 
consult  reference  books  for  formula). 

3.  Filled  with  distilled  water  to  which  a  little  starch  is 
added. 

4.  Filled  with  distilled  water  to  which  a  little  sugar  is 
added. 

Observe  the  results.  What  does  this  show  regarding  the 
food  of  this  fungus  ?  How  would  you  explain  the  discov- 
ery of  the  first  yeast  preparation  ?  What  are  "  wild  yeasts  "  ? 


A   MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  117 

What  effect  has  yeast  bread  in  digestion  ?  Which  are  more 
wholesome,  "light"  or  "unleavened"  breads  ?  What  is  an 
enzyme?  Why  is  yeast  used  in  "nonalcoholic''  drinks? 
What  is  "root  beer"?  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that 
the  yeast  plants  do  not  die  in  a  dry  yeast  cake  ?  Why  are 
hops  often  used  with  yeasts?  How  may  light  breads  be 
made  without  yeast  ? 


Type  2.     I^acteuia 


General  statement.  Bacteria  are  very  minute,  one-celled 
fungi  (by  some  placed  in  another  group  called  Fission  fungi), 
and  related  in  some  of  their  habits  to  molds  and  yeasts. 
They  are  too  minute  to  be  observed  by  most  pupils  ;  but 
with  proper  manipulation  of  the  (Jq))  (400  d.),  it  is  possible, 
when  studying  the  yeast  plant,  to  observe  the  very  minute 
dots,  dashes,  spirals,  light  or  dark  tinted,  in  more  or  less 
constant  vibration  among  the  yeast  cells.  The  discolored 
patches  on  the  bread  and  odor  of  decay  are  easily  noted. 
jMany  are  called  germs,  and  some  are  frequent  cause  of 
serious  diseases,  not  necessarily  directly  by  their  presence, 
but  as  often  indirectly  by  the  poisonous  products  they  pro- 
duce in  their  growth  (toxins  or  ptomaines).  Cases  of  poi- 
soning from  ice  cream  and  canned  meats  are  examples. 
Kead  in  good  reference  books  about  bacteria,  and  the  various 
means  employed  to  prevent  them  from  injuring  foods  or 
attacking  the  human  body. 

Experiments.  Try  some  of  the  following  experiments  :  — 
1.  Make  some  meat  broth  from  beef,  chicken,  or  fish  ; 
allow  it  to  cool  and  then  proceed  as  follows :  Take  four 
small  bottles,  or  preferably,  test  tubes,  and  number  them 
1,  2,  3,  and  4.  Into  No.  1  i)Our  a  small  quantity  of  the 
cooled  broth  ;  do  the  same  with  No.  2,  but  use  some  cotton 
for  a  stopper.  For  No.  8,  boil  the  bottle  and  reboil  the 
broth  and  while  both  are  very  hot,  pour  the  broth  into  the 

1  Bacilli,  Micrococci,  Spirilli. 


118  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

bottle  and  stopper  with  a  cork ;  do  the  same  for  No.  4,  but 
use  cotton  for  a  stopper.  Place  all  in  some  moderately 
warm  place  and  watch  carefully  for  any  change  in  appear- 
ance and  odor.  After  about  three  or  four  days,  what  do 
you  find,  and  how  do  you  explain  ? 

2.  Boil  some  pieces  of  potato  until  cooked  but  still  firm. 
Plunge  a  tumbler  and  saucer  into  the  boiling  water,  and 
with  a  boiled  needle,  pick  out  a  piece  of  potato,  place  on  boiled 
saucer,  under  boiled  tumbler;  surround  the  base  of  the 
tumbler  with  cotton.  Allow  the  second  piece  of  potato  to 
cool  and  place  on  the  other  saucer  without  any  precautions. 
Set  both  away  in  a  warm  i)lace  for  four  or  five  days,  and 
then  examine  for  appearance  and  odor.  What  do  you  find  ? 
Explain  as  before. 

The  experiments  may  be  varied  by  placing  the  tumbler 
in  a  cool  place. 

3.  Take  two  small  cubes  of  fresh  meat ;  dry  one  quickly 
and  thoroughly  over  a  fire,  taking  care  not  to  cook  it. 
Place  both  pieces  under  tumblers  for  three  days  and  then 
examine.     Observe  the  results,  and  explain  them. 

Matters  to  investigate.  Read  about  the  various  methods 
of  preserving  foods  from  spoiling ;  i.e.  plans  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  bacteria,  molds,  and  ferments  (yeasts). 

Discuss,  in  your  paper  on  bacteria,  the  economic  impor- 
tance, if  possible,  of  bacteria,  and  the  good  as  well  as  the 
injurious  effects  that  come  from  their  growth. 

A  few  questions  may  assist  in  the  direction  of  effort  to 
understand  these  minute  forms  of  life :  — 

1.  What  importance  are  bacteria  to  the  farmer  in  soil 
renovation  ? 

2.  What  plant  family  is  intimately  associated  with  bac- 
teria, receiving  much  benefit  therefrom  ? 

3.  What  are  antitoxins  ? 

4.  What  life  habits  have  bacteria?  How  do  they  mul- 
tiply, and  how  rapidly  ? 


A  MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  119 

/).    Why  are  diseases  of  the  nose,  throat,  and  lungs  so 
common  ? 

6.  What  agents  kill  bacteria  or  hinder   their  develoi^- 
meiit  ? 

7.  Why  is  country  air  said  to  be  more  pure  than  that  of 
a  large  city? 

8.  What  would  be  the  condition  of  things  were  there  no 
bacteria  ? 

9.  How  may  bacteria  gain  entrance  to  the  human  body? 
10.    What   are    "disinfectants,"    "antiseptics,"    "germi- 
cides," "food  preservatives,"  and  "fungicides"? 


Typk  .S.    Common  Black  Mold  of  Bread  ^ 

Home  experiments.  Take  a  small  piece  of  bread  which  is 
stale,  moisten,  rub  on  the  floor,  and  place  in  a  saucer.  Over 
all  place  an  inverted  tumbler,  and  set  in  a  warm  place. 
Watch  from  day  to  day,  and  notice  the  first  appearance  of  the 
white  "  fuzzy  "  growth,  and  its  further  ^  development  until 
the  whole  has  turned  dark.  Where  did  the  mold  come 
from,  and  what,  from  your  experiment,  seemed  to  be  the  con- 
ditions requisite  for  its  growth  ?  Try  the  experiment  again 
without  wetting  the  bread;  also  again,  by  keeping  in  a  cold 
spot.  Wliy  would  no  mold  grow  on  a  rock  treated  in  the 
same  manner?  As  the  bit  of  bread  increases  in  age  observe 
the  increasing  discoloration  by  various  colored  patches ;  also 
the  increasing  offensive  odor.  These  patches  are  probably 
caused  by  bacteria  (germs,  microbes)  and  the  bread  is  de- 
caying, or  decomposing.  Which  comes  first,  the  bacteria  or 
the  decay? 

Vary  your  experiment  by  using  potatoes,  raw  or  cooked, 
banana  skins,  fruits,  pieces  of  meat,  chips  of  wood,  or  other 
matter  of  organic  (produced  by  living  things)  nature.     Ob- 

1  Mucor,  Rhizopos. 


120  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

serve  the  varying  growths  on  each  substance  ;  also  that  black 
mold  may  grow  on  other  substances  besides  bread. 

Appearance.  Examine  mold  under  glass,  with  a  lens,  and 
observe  its  appearance ;  also  the  tiny  enlargements,  light  or 
dark  colored,  on  the  ends  of  some  threads.  Observe  the 
total  absence  of  true  leaf  green  (chlorophyll) ;  also  in  a  well- 
grown  specimen,  observe  how  the  mold  seems  to  grow  out 
from  the  bread  along  the  sides,  or  even  creep  over  the  glass 
plate  on  which  the  saucer  containing  the  bread  is  placed. 

Microscopic  structure.  Examine  a  specimen  under  (Zp)  and 
observe  the  white  threads  that  make  up  most  of  the  plant. 
This  thread  is  called  the  mycelium,  and  really  composes  the 
body  of  the  mold  plant.  Observe,  here  and  there,  rootlike 
structures,  that  attached  the  mold  to  the  bread,  and  from 
which  a  number  of  the  threads  diverge.  Of  what  use  would 
these  attaching  structures  be  to  the  mold  plant  besides 
holding  it  in  place  ?  Some  of  the  diverging  threads,  above 
mentioned,  may  end  in  white  or  dark  knobs,  sporangia  or 
spore  cases. 

Sporangia.  Try  to  trace  all  the  stages  in  the  formation  of 
these  sporangia  from  the  slightly  enlarged  end  of  the  fila- 
ment, to  the  black,  spherical  body,  a  ripe  sporangium. 
Find  a  crushed  sporangium.  What  size  and  number  are  the 
contained  spores? 

Mycelium.  Examine  in  detail  the  mycelium  of  the  mold. 
Is  the  plant  one  or  more  celled  as  shown  by  the  filament 
(exclusive  of  the  sporangia  which  are  at  last  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  plant  by  wall)?  Do  you  find  branches  or 
not?  How  are  the  rootlike  structures  (substratum  myce- 
lium) sometimes  connected  with  each  other?  What  benefit 
would  these  structures  be  to  the  plant? 

Drawings.  Make  drawings  showing  as  many  features  of 
this  mold  as  you  have  been  able  to  find.  Be  sure  to  show 
by  a  sketch  the  result  of  your  home  experiments. 

Problems.     What  is  your  explanation  of  the  molding  of 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  121 

foods?  In  what  ways  can  it  1)^  jji-cveiited  ?  Is  mold  a 
fungus  or  an  alga?  Kead  al)out  molds,  and  find  out  their 
economic  importance;  also  the  details  of  their  life  history 
not  discovered  in  the  preceding  work.  Are  molds  poisonous 
or  not  ?  What  disease  seems  to  be  caused  by  a  moldy 
grain?     Why  are  molds  less  injurious  than  bacteria? 

Typj:  4.     Water  Molds  ^ 

General  statement.  Various  kinds  of  organic  material 
placed  in  water  soon  develop  moldy  growths.  Live  fish 
are  frequently  attacked,  causing  great  loss  of  life.  Let  the 
pupil  try  to  grow  these  plants  by  means  of  various  vegeta- 
bles or  bits  of  meat  kept  for  some  time  in  water. 

Structure.  Examine  the  growth  in  the  water  by  means 
of  the  naked  eye  and  with  a  lens ;  observe  the  size  of  the 
growth,  color,  and  general  appearance.  What  fungus  fea- 
tures, more  or  less  resembling  bread  mold,  do  you  observe? 
How  do  you  account  for  the  mold  appearing  on  the  articles 
of  food  placed  in  the  water  ? 

Examine  preparations  (/j))  or  Qq')),  and  look  for  mycelium 
and  any  reproductive  structures. 

Drawings.  Sketch  such  structures  as  you  find,  and  name 
according  to  the  terms  already  used  in  the  common  bread 
mold. 

Damage  from.  Find  out  the  amount  of  damage  done  by 
these  plants  in  aquaria,  fish  hatcheries,  and  among  the 
fishes.  What  remedies,  if  any,  are  recommended  ?  Look 
up  in  any  good  reference  book,  and  add  a  sumnuiry  to  your 
statement  about  this  plant. 

Type  5.     Mushrooms  and  Toadstools- 

General  statement.  The  ordinary  forms  of  "toadstools" 
and  mushrooms  are  to  be  found  wherever  there  is  decaying 

1  Saprolognia  species.  ^  Higher  fungi. 


122  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

organic  matter  of  plant  origin.  "  Toadstools "  are  mush- 
rooms that  have  the  reputation  of  being  poisonous,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  many  toadstools,  so  called,  are  delicious  and 
wholesome,  and  the  deadliest  known  forms  are,  as  a  rule, 
called  "  mushrooms." 

Form  and  parts.  Examine  any  ''parasol-shaped"  form 
that  is  furnished,  or  that  you  are  able  to  find  for  yourself. 
Observe  the  stalk  that  attaches  the  plant  to  the  ground. 
Often  strands  of  fiber  or  threads  are  seen  attached  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  stalk,  and  these  represent  a  part  of  the 
mycelium  that  is  the  real  plant  living  in  the  organic  matter, 
on  which  the  mushroom  grows.  Break  up  a  stalk  and 
observe  its  fibrous  nature,  like  a  bundle  of  threads.  What 
is. the  form,  color,  and  size  of  the  stalk,  and  is  it  solid  or 
not  ?  Observe  whether  or  not  the  stalk  is  inclosed  at  the 
base  in  a  cup,  and  if  near  the  top,  there  is  a  band,  or  ring 
encircling  the  stalk.  The  expanded  portion  borne  on  the 
stalk  is  the  cap,  or  ^Meus.  AVhat  is  its  size,  shape,  color, 
the  nature  of  the  surface,  and  is  the  section  thick  or  thin  ? 
Observe  the  absence,  or  presence,  of  odor.  If  your  specimen 
is  young,  there  may  be  a  thin  film  of  skin  or  membrane 
stretched  from  the  margin  of  the  cap  to  the  stalk,  and 
covering  the  under  surface  of  the  cap.  Such  a  structure  is 
the  veil.     AVhat  purpose  has  it  ? 

The  under  surface  of  the  cap  may  be  covered  with  radi- 
ating, narrow  ridges  (gills),  small  holes  (pores  or  spines). 

Drawings.  Draw  a  side  view  of  the  mushroom,  a  long 
section  through,  the  whole  plant,  and  a  view  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  cap.     Draw  spores  also. 

Spore  print.  Spores.  Cut  the  stalk  of  a  fresh  mushroom 
close  to  the  cap,  and  place  the  cap,  right  side  up,  on  a  piece 
of  plain  paper.  Cover  all  with  a  tight  glass  to  exclude  any 
air  currents.  After  three  or  four  hours,  remove  the  glass 
and  lift  the  cap  directly  upward,  with  great  care.  What  do 
you  find  on  the  paper  ?     Compare  with  the  under  surface  of 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  123 

the  cap  for  siiiiiliirity  of  form  and  color.  iMake  a  tcni})orary 
mount  of  a  small  portion  of  the  powder,  and  examine  (lii)  or 
{hp).  What  do  you  see?  These  small  objects  are  spores 
that  reproduce  the  plant.  Where  did  they  come  from  ? 
Why  are  they  so  many  and  so  small  ?  What  is  the  color  of 
the  print,  and  of  the  spores,  under  the  microscope  ?  Draw 
some  spores. 

Decay  of  mushrooms.  Permit  a  mushroom  to  decay.  Com- 
pare it  with  meat  and  vegetables;  which  does  it  resemble 
in  decay?  Is  it  attacked  by  larvae  or  worms?  What  odor 
has  it  ?  Will  mushrooms  keep  as  long  as  potatoes  or  carrots? 

Light  and  mushrooms.  INIush rooms  are  often  grown  in 
dark  cellars,  caves,  or  in  buildings  without  windows.  Why 
could  you  not  grow  green  i[)lants  in  such  pljices  ?  IMush- 
rooms,  like  all  fungi,  lack  chlorophyll.  In  food  and  light 
requirements  how  do  they  resemble  animals  ?  From  your 
study  of  various  fungi,  state  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
this  plant  group. 

Many  mushrooms  are  poisonous.  A  very  few  {amanitas) 
are,  with  certainty,  deadly  in  their  effect.  They  may  be 
known  by : — 

1.  White  gills,  whatever  the  cap  color  may  be. 

2.  A  cup  at  the  base  of  the  stalk,  into  which  the  latter 
fits. 

3.  A  ring  on  the  stem,  more  or  less  like  a  folded 
umbrella. 

4.  Growth  on  the  earth,  not  on  stumps  or  wood. 

5.  Grow  solitary. 

Use.  From  the  nature  of  the  food  of  most  forms,  of  what 
value  are  these  plants  ?  Of  what  use  to  man  are  some 
kinds?     (They  are  nitrogenous  in  composition.) 

Drawings  of  various  species.  Draw  as  many  kinds  as 
you  can  find  and  have  time  to  work  with.  Learn  their 
names,  if  possible,  and  their  edible  qualities  or  dangerous 
characteristics. 


124  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Caution.  N.  B.  Never  eat  unknown  mushrooms,  and 
never  trust  any  rule  any  one  may  give,  except  the  exact 
determination  of  the  kind  from  some  good  work  on  mush- 
rooms. 

Type  6.     Puffballs  ^ 

Habitat.  These  fungi  grow  in  similar  situations  to 
those  occupied  by  the  mushrooms,  often  in  great  numbers 
and  occasionally  of  enormous  size,  five  to  twenty  pounds. 

Appearance.  Examine  puffballs  of  various  sorts.  Observe 
the  size,  appearance,  color,  surface,  and  general  shape  of 
each ;  also  their  attachment  to  the  soil  or  other  object  on 
which  the  plant  grows. 

Section.  Examine  puffballs  in  long  section  and  observe 
the  base  and  the  colored  mealy  sporemass  occupying  the 
upper  part  of  the  plant. 

Spores.  On  jarring  this  sporemass,  what  do  you  observe? 
How  do  the  unripe  puffballs  differ  from  the  ripe  ones? 
Why  do  these  fungi  have  such  rounded  forms?  Why  do 
they  have  so  many  spores?  Examine  some  of  the  latter 
with  (hjy)  and  compare  for  size  with  the  mushroom  spores. 

Some  puffballs  are  raised  on  stalks.  What  advantage 
would  this  be  ?  Others  have  an  outer  skin  that  splits  into 
valves  and  recurves  {earth  stars),  lifting  the  ball.     Why? 

Drawings.     Make  drawings,  external  view  and  sections. 

Food  value.  All  puffballs,  when  white  in  flesh  and  solid, 
are  edible,  but  they  are  not  fit  for  food  when  the  sporemass 
is  even  slightly  yellow  tinted.  Some  forms  grow  to  great 
size  and  are  among  the  best  of  mushrooms  for  the  table. 

Rules  for  determination.  It  may  be  well  here  to  empha- 
size again,  that  there  are  ?io  rtdes  of  common  acceptance  for 
determining  whether  forms  are  poisonous  or  not,  that  are 
loorth  anything  whatever.  The  only  safe  method  is  to  learn 
the  name  of  each  kind  you  find  from  some  good  descriptive 

1  Higher  fungi. 


A   MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  125 

work,  dealing  with  such  fungi,  and  never  even  taste  unknown 
forms.  These  plants  offer  abundant,  cheap,  and  moderately- 
nutritious  food,  but  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to 
learn  thoroughly  the  appearance  of  wholesome  kinds  and 
also,  as  before  given,  the  characteristics  found  in  the  deadly 
forms. 

Ten  edible  mushrooms.  IJelow  is  a  list  of  ten  perfectly 
wholesome  species  or  groups,  most  of  which  have  no  simi- 
larity to  poisonous  forms,  and  all  perfectly  distinct  and 
most  easily  determined  by  slight  attention  to  characteristic 
features :  — 

1.  Morels,  brownish,  wrinkled,  spongy,  hollow,  on  the 
ground,  in  JNIay. 

2.  Puffballs,  when  white-fleshed  and  solid,  not  a  single 
dangerous  form. 

o.  Commercial  mushrooms,  often  wild,  ring  on  the 
stem,  gills  pink,  ageing  to  dark  brown ;  plant  gray  brown- 
ish, with  short  stalk. 

4.  Fairy  ring,  small,  buff,  in  grass,  forming  rings. 

5.  Coral  mushrooms,  like  branching  corals,  white,  brown, 
buff,  on  ground  and  dead  wood. 

6.  Vermillion  Chanterelle,  very  small,  brilliant  vermil- 
lion,  gills  blunt,  shallow,  running  down  stalk. 

7.  Sulphur  mushroom,  on  dead  logs,  stumps,  salmon 
above,  sulphur  below ;  a  pore  form  of  bracket  shape  (see 
next  study). 

8.  Honey  mushrooms,  stump  bases  in  autumn;  in  great 
clusters;  buff  with  whitish  gills. 

9.  Green  russula,  cap  moldgreen,  stalk  short  and  with 
gills  white  ;  on  ground. 

10.    Violet  cap,  whole  plant  violet  tinted. 

Type  7.     I^kacket  Fungi 

Habitat.  These  fungi  are  commonly  found  on  stumps, 
dead  trees,  and  logs.     They  are  easily  preserved.     Hunt  for 


126  ^       REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

them,  and  if  possible,  furnish  your  own  specimens  for 
study. 

External  features.  Observe  that  there  is,  as  a  rule,  an 
entire  lack  of  a  stalk,  the  cap  or  pileus  growing  directly 
from  the  wood.  Observe  the  consistency  of  the  cap  as 
compared  to  the  softness  of  the  ordinary  mushrooms.  What 
evidence  can  you  find  that  these  plants  live  more  than  one 
year?  Not  all,  but  some  do.  Compare  the  under  side, 
or  spore-bearing  surface,  with  the  same  region  in  the  mush- 
room. What  do  you  find  ?  Study  a  section  of  a  bracket 
fungus.  Observe  the  spongy  nature  of  the  caj).  (The 
Indians  make  punk  from  certain  forms.)  Also  the  gill,  pore, 
or  spiny  layer,  in  which  the  spores  are  produced. 

Drawings.  Draw  upper  surface  and  sectional  view,  also 
a  portion  of  the  under  surface  (m). 

Economic  importance.  These  plants  often  cause  serious 
injury  to  living  trees,  their  mycelia  penetrating  into  the 
woody  tissues  and  causing  death.  They  sometimes  attain  to 
very  large  size  and  are  frequently  used  for  ornamental  work. 
Certain  forms  (notably,  one  called  the  sulphur  mushroom, 
on  account  of  the  color,)  of  soft  consistency  are  edible  in 
the  young  state. 

Type  8.     Sac  Fungi.     Cup  Fungi.     Morels 

Habitat.  There  are  many  forms  of  these  fungi,  some 
assuming  the  shape  of  ciq^s,  some  looking  like  elongated 
spongy  masses,  covered  with  ridges.  The  morel  is  a 
common  form  found  in  open  woods  in  April  and  May  and 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicate  food  fungus. 

Appearance.  Examine  the  pileus  or  cap  and  observe  the 
form,  whether  cuplike,  club-form,  or  irregularly  covered  by 
ridgelike  convolutions.  The  inner  surface  of  the  cups,  the 
outer  surface  of  the  clubs  and  ridges  are  spore  bearing. 
Draw  carefully  such  forms  as  you  have,  both  externally  and 
in  long  section. 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  127 

Reproduction.  Examine  {Ip)  thin  sections  of  the  spore- 
bearing  surface  and  observe  that  the  spores  are  in  long  sacs. 
To  what  are  the  sacs  attached  ?  How  many  spores  does  a 
sac  contain  ?  Examine  the  spores  and  compare  them  with 
the  spores  of  common  mushrooms.  Make  drawinj,^s  showing 
these  reproductive  structures. 

Lichen  features.  Find,  if  you  can,  these  phmts  growing. 
Ui)on  what  do  tliey  live?  Refer  to  those  forms  when  you 
study  the  lichens  and  observe  the  similar  reproductive 
features. 

TvrK    9.     A  (lE.NEUAL    Study  of    Kusts,  Mildews,  and 

Smuts 

General  statement.  A  very  large  variety  of  material  may 
be  preserved  during  the  summer  for  class  use  during  the 
colder  months.  This  study  ought,  however,  by  all  means, 
to  be  supplemented  by  out-of-door  observations  on  these 
forms  of  plant  life  during  their  active  growing  season.  For 
class  or  individual  work  the  rusts  of  grains,  barberry  leaves 
in  spring,  and  the  blackberry  and  may-apple  clustercups, 
should  be  studied.  The  lilac  mildew,  the  smut  of  oats  and 
corn  also  are  easily  obtainable  and  may  be  preserved  dry 
or  as  formaldehyde  material. 

Features  of  form  and  structure.  Study  such  material  as  is 
presented,  with  the  naked  eye  and  (??i).  Observe  the  form, 
color,  size,  and  particular  place  of  growth  of  each  plant. 
Being  without  chlorophyll,  what  class  does  it  belong  to? 
What  is  its  life  habit,  growing  as  it  does  on  what  living 
plant  ?  What  proportion  of  the  plant  part  examined  is  cov- 
ered with  the  growth?  Where  does  the  fungus  obtain  its 
nourishment?  What  effect  would  this  have  on  the  host 
plant  ?  Make  drawings  showing  the  result  of  your  obser- 
vations. 

Examine  preparations  Up)  and  {hp)y  and  lot)k  for  any 
features  of  mycelium,  sporangia,  and  spores,  cliaracteristic  of 


128  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

fungi.  How  may  this  plant  have  gained  a  foothold  on  the 
host?  Consult  reference  books  for  methods  of  reproduction. 
Reference  reading.  Read  about  the  damage  to  growing 
croi)s  caused  by  these  plants  and  give  the  remedies  recom- 
mended. Consult  the  government  bulletins  which  give  a 
large  amount  of  information  about  fungus  diseases  and 
spraying  for  prevention.  Many  details  of  reproduction,  life 
history,  and  other  important  features  must  be  left  to  the  in- 
dividual teacher's  judgment. 

Type  10.     Lichens 

Habitat.  The  plants  may  be  found  by  the  pupil,  growing 
on  trees,  fences,  old  sheds,  stones,  often  almost  completely 
covering  the  objects  on  which  they  grow. 

Appearance.  It  is  well,  if  x^ossible,  to  have  a  plentiful 
supply  of  three  common  forms :  foliose  or  leaflike ;  crusta- 
ceous  or  encrusting  ;  and  fruticose  or  bushy  form.  In  the 
specimens  presented  determine  to  which  of  the  above  groui)S 
each  belongs,  also  upon  what  the  plant  is  found;  observe  the 
form  assumed  by  the  entire  growth  (lichens  often  form, 
for  example,  beautiful  rosettes).  Examine  carefully  and  de- 
termine how  the  plant  is  attached  to  the  object  upon  which 
it  grows.  Make  careful  drawings  i-howing  the  three  forms, 
natural  size. 

Experiment.  Take  a  dry  lichen,  observe  its  color,  and 
then  thoroughly  soak  it.  What  change  in  size  and  color 
takes  place  ?  Recall,  if  you  have  seen  it,  the  effect  of  rain 
on  tree  lichens,  also  on  a  grass  plot  after  a  warm  shower. 

Structure.  Study  with  (Ip)  or  (hp)  prepared  specimens 
of  a  lichen  to  show  its  real  structure.  Observe  the  inter- 
woven mass  of  white  threads.  How  do  they  resemble  the 
forms  already  studied  among  the  algae  and  fungi  ?  Observe, 
in  particular,  the  layer  of  greeyi  cells  mixed  with  the  white 
j&laments.     What  plant  do  they  resemble  ?     In  fact,  these 


A  MANUAL  OF  ]iOTANY  129 

cells  are,  in  all  probability,  an  alga  yon  have  studied,  and 
the  lichen  is  really  a  mutual  partnership  of  a  fungus  and  an 
alga.  What  advantage  does  such  a  plant  have  over  a  fungus  ? 
The  fungus  iihiinents  are  attached  to  the  algLc  cells  hy  tiny 
rootlike  structures  called  the  haustoria.  Of  what  benefit 
would  the  ])artn('rship  be  to  the  alga  ?  This  mutual  relation- 
ship is  called  sj/mbiosis,  and  often  exists  anujng  animals.  The 
bacteria  have  a  similar  relationship  with  clovers  and  related 
plants. 

Reproduction.  Observe  on  some  specimens,  elongated 
clubs,  cups,  or  urnlike  structures.  These  are  the  fruiting 
bodies  or  apotheda.  Study  a  section  of  an  apothecium  (Jip), 
and  observe  the  filaments  ending  in  spore  cases  (asci).  How 
many  s[)ores  in  each  case  ?     What  are  the  s])ores  for  ? 

Drawings.  Draw  details  of  lichen  structure  and  a  sectional 
diagram  of  an  apothecium. 

Value  of  lichens.  From  any  source  find  out  any  value  to 
man  directly  or  indirectly  which  this  group  of  fungi  has. 
Look  u}),  in  particular,  reindeer  moss,  Iceland  moss,  rock 
tripe,  and  litmus.  What  relation  have  lichens  to  soil  forma- 
tion ? 

A  Field  Study  of  Algce  and  Fungi 

Take  a  limited  area,  if  possible,  containing  as  great  diver- 
sity of  surface  features  (meadow,  wood,  pond,  creek,  sand, 
gravel  banks,  bluffs,  etc.)  as  your  neighborhood  will  afford. 
Make  a  careful  nmp,  drawn  to  a  large  scale,  of  the 
district,  denoting  by  various  tints  the  various  features  of 
topography. 

Explore  very  carefully  for  any  alga^,  fungi,  or  lichens,  and 
designate  the  location  of  the  same  by  letter  or  figure  on  your 
map. 

Having  found  as  many  forms  as  })ossible,  summarize  the 
whole  by  a  table  having  the  following  headlines :  — 


130 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


Kinds  ok 
Plants 


Number  of 

Kinds  of 

F^Acn 


Quantity 


Alonk  or 
Associated 


Shade  or 

Sun 


Water 
Relation 


Parasite 
OR  Not 


Algte 

Lichens 

Fungi 


From  all  the  observations  made  try  to  form  a  general 
statement  for  each  class,  stating  what  their  environment  is, 
and  how  each  form  seems  by  its  structure,  color,  physical 
features  of  dryness,  softness,  etc.,  to  be  adapted  to  its  place 
of  growth. 

Draw  a  few  characteristic  forms  (natural  size  or  7n)  of 
each  class. 

Remember  definitely  that  the  stud}^  of  plants  and  animals 
in  connection  with  their  surroundings  or  environment  is 
ecology,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  and  certainly  one 
of  the  most  interesting  in  which  living  things  can  be 
observed. 

SECTION   in.     THE   MOSS   PLANTS 

Type  1.     Water  Liverworts   {Riccia  jimtans) 

Habitat.  Riccia  may  be  found  in  clear  ponds  or  slow 
streams  having  much  vegetatiou,  and  especially  in  cold 
springs  of  considerable  volume.  It  is  most  easily  grown  in 
the  laboratory,  where  it  ought  always  to  be  found. 

Appearance.  Examine  a  plant  iii  the  water  with  the  naked 
eye.  What  position  with  reference  to  the  surface  has  it  ? 
Observe  its  color,  size,  shape,  and  mode  of  branching.  Observe 
also  whether  the  axis  is  cylindrical  or  flattened. 

Structure.  Examine  with  Qp).  Observe  the  notches  at 
the  end  of  each  branch  {vegetative  ov  growing  notches)  and  the 
mottled  appearance  of  the  axis  due  to  air  chambers  within  the 


A   MANUAL  OK   BOTANY  131 

plant.  Examine  carefully  the  lighter  areas.  If  possible, 
discover  the  cell  network  making  up  the  surface. 

A  higher  magnifying  power  will  reveal  the  small  green 
ddoroplasts  in  the  cells.  Compare  for  form  and  size  the 
cells  near  the  margin  with  those  near  the  center  of  the  axis. 
What  is  formed  by  the  latter?  Similar  features  were  ob- 
served in  fu(;us. 

Study  a  section  of  the  axis  Qp)  and  observe  the  cell  struc- 
ture and  air  chiunbors.     Explain  how  the  plant  floats. 

Drawings.  Show  all  the  features  of  plant  structure,  by 
pro])cr  drawings. 

Questions.  How  does  the  plant  body  of  the  riccia  differ 
from  most  of  the  alga3  studied  ?  What  effect  has  the  flat- 
tened condition  on  the  ability  to  float?  Some  of  the  red  sea- 
weeds have  a  flattened  thallus  ^  plant  body,  but  they  arc  the 
exception  in  algae.  After  a  study  of  the  next  subject  observe 
the  gradual  change  from  the  alga3  to  the  land  liverworts 
shown  by  this  plant.  How  is  this  plant  fitted  for  life  on  the 
surface  of  still  waters  ? 

Type  2.     A  Land  Liverwort  ^ 

Habitat.  Marchantia  is  a  very  common  i)lant  in  nearly 
all  regions,  growing  in  deep  shade  where  there  is  abundant 
moisture  and  more  or  less  bare  earth  or  rock.  It  seems  to 
favor  particularly  earth  that  has  been  burnt  over.  It  is 
found  commonly  in  greenhouses  (being  considered  an  evi- 
dence of  poor  management).  It  can  be  grown  in  a  Wardian 
case  in  the  laboratory.  Lunularia  and  coiiocejJuihis,  some- 
what similar  species,  are  occasionally  found  in  quantity  in 
somewhat  similar  situations.  If  possible,  examine  these 
plants  wdiere  they  grow,  or  placed  in  dishes  in  a  natural 
position.    With  reference  to  the  earth's  surface,  are  tliey  erect 

1  A  tlialhis  is  a  i)laiit  liaviiii,'  no  distinction  of  su-ni  ami  loaf. 

2  Alarchantia. 


132  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 

or  flat  ?  Why  do  they  grow  in  this  manner  ?  How  are  they 
attached  to  the  earth  ?  What  color  and  form  have  the  thalli  ? 
Do  they  grow  singly  or  in  mats  ?  Take  a  specimen  and 
place  it  on  the  table.  Observe  the  slowness  or  rapidity  of 
drying. 

External  features.  Place  a  well-formed  thallus  in  a  watch 
glass.  Examine  for  a  midrib,  wings,  vegetative  notches, 
manner  of  branches,  and  hairs  that  attach  it  to  the  soil 
(rhizoids).  Examine  the  snrface  for  more  or  less  regular 
areas  (stomata  areas).  What  do  you  find  in  the  center  of  each 
area  ?  This  is  a  stomate  or  mouth  for  the  entrance  and  exit 
of  air  and  gases. 

Cupulas.  On  some  thalli,  observe  the  peculiar  structure  on 
the  upper  surface  appearing  like  tiny  cups  (cupules).  Upon 
what  are  they  always  situated  ?  If  possible,  find  the  different 
stages  from  the  young  to  the  fully  developed.  How  do  they 
differ  ?  Look  inside  of  a  f ul  1-grown  one.  What  do  you  find  ? 
Examine  the  contained  structure  {cjemmce,  buds)  with  (in) 
and  (/p),  and  observe  the  shape,  color,  and  other  features,  and 
in  particular  the  notches  and  shining  globules  of  oil  near  the 
margin.  Is  the  gemma  a  sphere  or  a  flattened  disk  ?  How 
many  are  there  in  a  cupule  ?  How  many  cupules  are  there 
on  a  good-sized  thallus  ?  These  gemmae  are  reproductive 
structures  that  are  prepared  for  immediate  growth  and  are 
fine  examples  of  vegetative  multiplication.  ,  Explain  how  a 
gemma  becomes  a  thallus,  and  how  those  from  one  thallus 
may  soon  cover  a  considerable  area  with  plants. 

Microscopic  structure.  Examine  the  lower  surface  for  any 
stomates  (m).  Are  they  present  or  not?  Examine  the 
thin  protective  layer  of  cells  which  may  be  pulled  off  from 
the  upper  surface  of  the  thallus  Qp).  Study  this  epidermis 
for  the  cells  and  the  stomates.  Observe  the  four  guard 
cells  of  the  stomate.  What  is  their  use?  What  color,  if 
any,  has  the  epidermis  ?  Examine,  if  possible,  a  section  of 
the  thallus  and  observe,  first,  the  upper  and,  second,  the 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  133 

lower  opidormis,  and  third,  tlio.  iiiiddhi  mass  of  cells  (ineso- 
ph}' 11).  What  shape  have  the  cells  ?  Where  is  the  chloro- 
phyll located  ?  The  mesophyll  cells  are  filled  with  living 
protoplasm,  hence  are  the  active  working  cells.  Observe 
that  the  stomates  open  into  irret^nilar  dir  chdinbers.  What 
structures  are  found  in  these  chandlers  ?  What  color  have 
they  ?  Observe  the  rhizoids  projecting  from  the  lower  sur- 
face, or  study  them  separately  and  find  the  variations  in 
form.  If  no  fresh  section  is  available,  study  a  figure  in 
some  reference  book. 

Sexual  reproduction.  On  certain  tlialli  observe  two  kinds 
of  erect  stalks,  expansed  at  the  summit,  the  fruiting  or  re- 
productive branches  bearing  the  gamete  bodies.  How  do 
these  two  forms  differ  ?  The  one  with  the  divided  toj)  or 
receptacle  is  the  archegonkil  branch.  The  other  is  the  axther- 
idial  branch.  What  shape  has  its  receptacle  ?  Are  both 
kinds  on  the  same  thallus  or  not  ?  Study  })rei)ared  sections 
of  each  receptacle,  or  figures  of  the  same  in  your  reference 
books,  and  observe  the  archegonia  depending  below  and  the 
antheridia  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  respective  receptacles. 
When  mature,  the  sperm  and  the  archegonial  oosphere  of 
these  plants  unite  to  produce  a  spore,  which  grows  into  a 
flask-shaped  structure,  which  you  can  see  on  the  mature  re- 
ceptacle of  the  archegonial  branch,  hanging  downward  {the 
sporopluite).  The  sporophyte,  when  mature,  contains  many 
spores,  mixed  with  the  elastic  filaments  of  peculiar  nature, 
elaters,  which  assist  in  scattering  the  spores.  These  on  ger- 
mination produce  the  thallus  forms  studied  at  first. 

Conclusions.  What  reason  can  you  give,  or  find  in  refer- 
ence books,  for  the  two  methods  of  reproduction  '.'  How  do 
these  plants  get  into  the  greenhouses?  What  difYorences 
are  there  between  the  spores  and  gemmae  ?  Exi)lain  the 
placing  of  the  liverworts  with  the  true  mosses  in  the  moss- 
plant  branch  ?  What  new  structural  features  are  seen  in 
the  liverworts  for  the  first  time  ?     What  is  meant  by  the 


134 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


term   tissue  ?     What   tissues   are  found  in  the  liverwort  ? 
How  is  the  liverwort  more  complex  than  the  algae? 

Drawings.  Make  the  following  drawings  from  the  fresh 
or  mounted  material :  — 

1.  Thalli  of   different  sizes  and  forms,  showing  cupules, 

if  present. 

2.  Surface  (m)  to  show  stomate  areas. 

3.  Epidermis  {l]))  to  show  stomate  structures. 

4.  Rhizoids  (Ip). 

5.  Antheridial  and  archegonial  thalli  and  branches. 

6.  Gemmae  {Ip). 

Details  of  reproduction  may  be  added  if  observed. 

7.  Section  of  thallus  {Ij)). 

Type  3.     The  Mosses  ^ 

General  statement  about  habitat.  Mosses  are  so  generally- 
known  that  the  student  ought  to  be  able  to  answer  many  of 
the  following  questions  about  their  place  and  manner  of 
growth.  Recall  all  the  situations  in  which  you  have  seen 
mosses  growing  and  enumerate  the  different  forms  by  some 
brief  descriptive  characteristics  of  stem  and  leaves.  Are 
they  shade  or  sun  lovers  ?  Observe  the  variation  in  color. 
What  habit  do  they  all  have  in  regard  to  their  growing  to- 
gether ?  How  do  they  vary  in  size  and  branching  ?  Tabu- 
late the  results  of  your  observation  on  mosses,  using  the 
form  given  below: 


No. 


Whkrk 
Grown 


Size 


COLOF 


Branch- 
ing 


Shade 

OR  Sun 


Leaf- 

1NE88 


With, 

Without 

Fruit 


1  True  mosses. 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  135 

Parts  and  structure.  Kxaminn  tlu^  leafy  specimens  fur- 
nished (naked  eye  and  in). 

Observe  the  central  stem,  bearing  the  leaves.  Are  the 
latter  few  or  many  ?  Are  they  large  or  small  ?  Why  are 
you  inclined  to  call  them  leaves  ?  What,  in  your  own  words, 
is  a  leaf?  Compare  leaves  of  different  mosses  for  size  and 
shape.  Mount  a  stem  with  some  fresh  green  leaves  and 
study  (Ip).  Observe  the  leaf  margin  and  the  presence  or 
absence  of  veins.  Does  a  leaf  appear  to  you  to  be  thin  or 
thick  ?  Observe  the  cell  structure  of  the  leaf  and  the  cell 
chloroplasts.  Examine  the  leaf  for  stomates.  Why  are  they 
absent?  Examine  the  lower  end  of  a  moss  stem  for  the 
rhizoids.  What  color  have  they  ?  Are  they  branched  or 
not  ?  Carefully  observe  a  large  one  and  find  out  whether  it 
is  a  one  or  more  than  one-celled  structure.  What  may  be 
the  use  of  the  rhizoids?  Study  a  cross  section  of  a  moss 
stem  (Ip)  and  observe  the  cell  arrangement.  Why  do  we 
call  the  structure  a  stem?  (This  is  the  first  correct  use 
of  the  term.) 

The  Gametophyte  or  leafy  plant.  Compare  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  a  number  of  mosses.  Examine  leafy  moss  plants, 
showing  the  gamete  structures  at  the  summit,  and  possibly 
a  green  algalike  filament  Protonema  at  the  base.  These 
plants  are  gametophytes,  and  differ  from  each  other  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  topmost  leaves.  In  the  male  gameto- 
phyte plant,  designated  by  $  ,  they  form  a  complete  rosette, 
in  the  midst  of  which  the  antheridia  are  borne  ;  in  the  female 
gametophyte,  designated  $  ,  the  leaves  are  in  a  cluster  more 
or  less  closely  inclosing  the  archegonium.  If  preparations 
are  furnished,  study  the  archegonia  and  antheridia,  or  ex- 
amine carefully  good  figures  of  the  same  found  in  your  text- 
books. In  either  case  endeavor  to  fix  in  your  mind  tliat  the 
fiask-sha])ed  antheridium  produces  motilp  sperms,  which  in 
water  find  their  way  through  the  neck  of  the  archegonium 
into  the  oosphere,  which    thus  becomes  a  spore  (o()S[)ore). 


136  REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 

This,  in  germinating,  becomes  the  structure  studied  in  the 
next  paragraph. 

The  sporophyte.  Study  a  complete  moss  {i.e.  one  with  a 
leafy  stem,  capped  by  a  naked  stalk,  bearing  an  enlargement 
at  its  summit)  and  observe  the  two  structures  mentioned. 
The  stalk  is  the  pedicel  or  seta  and  the  enlargement  is  the 
capsule,  often  called  the  fruit.  What  is  the  color,  size,  and 
length  of  the  seta  ?  If  possible,  observe  a  young  specimen. 
In  this  case  what  do  you  observe  inclosing  the  enlarged 
end  ?  Study  now  a  full-grown  seta  and  capsule.  What  is 
the  shape,  size,  color,  and  appearance  of  all  the  visible 
parts  of  the  latter  (m)?  A  pointed  or  conical  sheath  or 
cover,  fitting  snugly  over  the  end,  is  the  calyptra.  Remove 
by  the  fingers  and  observe  beneath,  and  covered  by  it,  a 
conical  or  hemispherical,  pointed  lid,  the  operculum,  separ- 
ated from  the  capsule  proper  by  a  seam.  Remove  the  oper* 
culum,  and  some  fine  teeth,  the  ijeristome,  may  often  appear, 
surrounding  the  mouth  of  the  capsule,  and  showing  in  some 
cases  in  their  midst  the  protruding  sporangium.  Apply 
pressure  Qp)  and  rupture  a  capsule,  and  observe  the  spores. 
Are  these  large  or  small  ?  Are  they  few  or  many  ?  What 
shape  and  color  have  they  ?  What  use  has  each  structure 
mentioned  above  ? 

Life  history.  You  have  discovered  in  your  study  of  the 
moss  that  there  are  two  different  plants,  each  arising  from 
a  spore,  but  intimately  connected.  This  condition  is  called 
the  alternation  of  generations.  Generation  I  was  the  leaf- 
bearing  gametophyte  —  coming  from  a  si)ore  formed  in  the 
capsule.  Generation  II,  consisting  of  the  naked  seta  and 
the  capsule,  is  called  a  sporophyte,  and  grew  from  the  spore 
lodged  at  the  summit  of  the  female  gametophyte.  How  do 
these  generations  differ  in  ability  to  live  independent  lives  ? 
Which  one  can  be  considered  a  parasite  ?  What  benefit  is 
it  to  the  moss  to  have  its  capsule  elevated  ? 

Moss  problems.     Thoroughly  dry  freshly  gathered  moss 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  137 

and  then  place  in  water.  What  liai)pons  ?  Did  tlic  changes 
caused  by  soaking  occur  slowly  or  rapidly  ?  Did  it  dry 
rapidly?  Apply  this,  if  you  can,  to  the  explanation  of 
why  mosses  are  not  killed  by  great  drought  or  Arctic  cold. 
Wliat  benetit  to  the  moss  is  the  crowded  habit  of  living? 
What  would  you  infer  to  be  the  food  of  mosses  ?  Of  what 
use  to  man  are  mosses  ?  Read  about  peat  and  fuels  pre- 
]);u-ed  from  this  substance.  If  possible,  examine  si)ecimens 
of  spJuif/nnm,  a  bog  moss,  and  observe  how  it  differs  from 
the  common  mosses.  The  two  groups  are  subgroups  of  the 
moss  class.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  sphagnum  and 
sphagnum  bogs. 

How  may  mosses  be  related  to  alga??  What  similar 
features  do  they  have  ? 

What  are  so-called  moss  flowers  ?  Why  do  you  not  find 
mosses  ordinarily  with  sporophytes  attached  ? 

Drawings.     Make  careful  drawings  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Several  mosses  (m)  to  show  variation  in  form  and 
size. 

2.  A  complete  moss  (note  size)  and  (m) 

3.  Leaves  of  different  species  (m). 

4.  Leaf  (Ij^)  to  show  cell  structure. 

5.  Leaf  section  (Ij)). 

G.  Leaf  cell  chloroplasts  {!/)). 

7.  Rhizoids  (//>). 

8.  Capsule  (/y>)  with  idl  the  parts. 

9.  Prepared  antheridia  and  archegonia. 

SECTION   TV.     TIIF   FKRX    PLANTS 

Class   1.    r'i:iiNs   Pijoi'ER 

General  statement.  Ferns  may  be  obtained  fresh  from  any 
greenhouse  at  any  time  of  the  year  and  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  study  the  leaves  and  their  vegetative  features.  For  much 
of  the  work,  dried  and  carefully  mounted  material  is  prefer- 


138  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

able,  as  it  i?  not  subject  to  wilting  and  consequent  useless- 
ness.  Students  are  often  able  to  furnish  some  material, 
fresh  or  dry,  and  it  is  always  a  distinct  benefit  to  the  stu- 
dent whenever  even  a  part  of  the  material  which  he  uses  is 
brought  in  by  himself. 

Habitat.  Recall  where  you  have  seen  ferns  growing  wild. 
What  conditions  of  moisture  and  sunlight  do  they  generally 
need  ?  What  forms  do  you  know  by  name  ?  How  large  or 
how  small  have  you  seen  them  ?  How  common  are  ferns  as 
compared  with  other  plants? 

The  Sporophyte 

The  leaf,  external  features.  Acquaint  yourself  with  the 
leaf  characters  of  at  least  the  following  forms : 

The  Boston  Fern  (cultivated)  and  the  Shield,  Spleenwort, 
and  Brake  Ferns  (wild).  The  characteristics  which  dis- 
tinguish will  be  learned  when  we  study  the  fruit  (spore 
clusters).  Observe  the  general  appearance  of  the  leaf  (all 
that  part  commonly  called  the  fern),  and  observe  that  it  has 
two  parts,  a  stalk  below,  the  petiole,  and  a  thin,  green,  ex- 
panded, more  or  less  divided  blade  above.  In  the  Boston 
fern  the  blade  is  once  divided  into  lobes  called  pf?i7ioe  (pinna). 
In  the  shield  fern  the  blade  is  divided  twice  or  thrice,  the 
second  division  forming  the  pinmdce  (pinnula).  Observe  the 
amount  of  division  in  any  of  the  ferns  furnished.  Observe 
whether  the  stalk  is  smooth  or  bears  brown  scales  near  its 
base.  Examine  a  young  leaf  not  yet  expanded.  What 
peculiar  form  has  it?  (This  form  is  a  characteristic  of 
ferns.)  The  method  of  leaf  unfolding  or  expansion  is 
vernatio7i. 

Study  the  distribution  of  the  veins  (venation).  A  charac- 
teristic form  is  the  forked  or  dichotomous,  with  the  vein 
ends  separate. 

The  rhizome.  Examine  the  fresh  underground  stems 
{rhizome),  or  the  same  preserved  in  some  manner.     (This 


A  MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  130 

stem  is  commonly  called  a  root.)  Observe  the  direction  of 
growth,  the  size  and  color  of  the  terminal  growing  part 
{apical  bud),  and  the  roots ;  also  the  place  where  the  roots 
of  the  present  year  were  or  arc  attached.  The  leaves  are 
produced  at  nodes,  and  between  the  nodes  are  internodes. 
What  evidence  do  you  find  that  indicates  an  age  of  more 
than  one  year  for  the  rhizome  ?  Why  is  the  growth  hori- 
zontal ?  Why  are  there  not  buds  at  both  ends  ?  Do  you 
find  any  scales  (rudimentary  leaves)  on  the  stem  ?  Why 
are  the  stems  of  ferns  living  in  cold  regions  underground 
structures  ? 

Cross  section  of  rhizome.  Examine  (Ijii)  a  cross  section  of 
the  Pteris  (brake)  rhizome  and  observe  carefully  the  four 
tissues  (cells  similar  in  form,  having  the  same  use).  What 
color  and  form  have  the  cells  of  the  outside  layer  ?  What 
is  the  size  of  the  cells  ?  This  layer  is  the  epidermis.  Study 
the  cells  next  within  the  epidermis  and  occupying  most  of 
the  section.  What  color,  form,  and  size  have  these  cells? 
Parenchyma  or  fundamental  tissue  ? 

Is  the  color  everywhere  the  same  ?  Observe  two  dark 
brown  bands  of  cells  (hard  tissue)  toward  the  center  of  the 
section.  What  form  has  each  band  and  what  size,  shape, 
and  thickness  of  wall  have  the  cells  ?  Observe  the  remain- 
ing tissue  looking  like  round  or  oblong,  lacelike  areas  scat- 
tered here  and  there  about  the  bands  of  hard  tissue.  This 
tissue  is  the  vascular  tissue,  and  each  area  is  a  vascular 
bundle.  Each  bundle  is  inclosed  in  a  necklace  of  cells 
(bundle  sheath,  endoderm)  within  which  are  wood  cells 
{xylem)  and  vessels  (phloem  or  bast).  Study  a  long  section 
through  the  same  rhizome  and  try  to  locate  the  above  tissues. 
How  do  the  cells  differ  in  shape  from  the  same  cell  in  cross 
section  ?  Seek  to  discover  the  use  of  each  part  of  the  vas- 
cular bundles. 

Leaf  structure.  Examine  (Jp)  the  veins  in  a  loaf,  and  ob- 
serve their  method  of  branching,  and  whether  the  ends  are 


140  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

free  from  each  otlier  or  united  into  a  net.  Remove  a  small 
portion  of  the  epidermis  from  the  upper  and  the  lower  sur- 
faces, mount  in  water,  and  examine  (Ip).  Study  the  trans- 
parent parts  for  stomates  and  guard  cells.  How  do  the 
two  epidermal  layers  differ  ?  Which  epidermis  has  the 
stomates  ?  What  reason  can  you  give  for  their  absence  in 
the  other  epidermis  ?  Study  a  stomate  carefully,  and  find 
its  shape,  and  the  number,  shape,  and  features  of  the  guard 
cells  (Zp). 

Study  a  section  of  the  fern  pinnula  to  find  the  relation 
of  the  epidermal  layers,  stomates,  and  mesophyll.  Where 
is  the  chlorophyll? 

Reproduction,  the  sori  and  contents.  Examine  fertile 
leaves  of  the  Boston,  shield,  spleenwort,  and  brake  ferns 
for  brownish  structures  on  their  surface.  On  which  surface 
dD  you  find  them?  These  structures  are  sort  (sorus). 
What  relation  to  the  veins  ?  How  are  they  situated  with 
reference  to  the  midrib  of  the  lobe  and  to  the  margin? 
Compare  the  sori  of  as  many  other  ferns  as  you  may  have 
access  to,  observing  the  difference  in  shape  and  size.  The 
sorus  is  often  covered  with  a  thin  skin  or  flap,  or  leaf  part 
(indusium).  What  use  may  this  have?  How  may  it  have 
originated?  Examine  a  sorus  {l}^).  Of  what  is  it  com- 
posed? Try  to  isolate  one  of  the  structures  (sporangia) 
and  study  it  carefully.  Observe  its  form,  the  stalk  or 
pedicel  (if  present),  and  a  peculiar  partial  ring  of  cells 
{annidus).  Try  to  see  the  sporangium  from  various  points 
of  view.  How  does  the  position  of  the  annulus  vary? 
How  much  of  the  sporangium  wall  does  it  embrace?  Do 
you  find  any  opening  in  the  wall?  If  the  sporangium  is 
only  partly  grown,  observe  small  irregularly  triangular 
or  round  objects  through  the  partly  transparent  wall. 
Those  are  the  spores.  Seek  to  discover  the  purpose  of 
the  annulus.  What  would  you  say,  from  a  study  of  the 
spores,  sporangia,  and  sori  on  a  fern  leaf,  as  to  the  total 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  141 

spore  number  in  a  fern  plant  ?  Wliy  is  such  a  plenitude 
of  spores  produced?  What  would  you  judge  is  produced 
when  a  spore  from  the  sporangium  germinates? 

Sterile  leaves  and  sporophylls.  Examine  sterile  leaves 
(not  having  sori)  of  ferns  like  the  sensitive,  ostrich,  or 
cinnamon.  Observe  the  absence  of  the  sori,  so  common  in 
other  fern  leaves.  Examine  now  the  peculiarly  contracted 
brownish  or  greenish  clustered  structures  borne  on  stalks, 
and  found  growing  from  the  same  underground  stems  as 
the  naked  or  sterile  leaves  you  have  just  looked  at.  Crush 
a  single  division  of  one  of  these;  mount  and  examine  (/j)), 
and  observe  the  similarity  to  the  sporangia  studied  before. 
These  contracted  stalk  structures  are  strangely  modified 
leaves  called  sporophylls,  bearing  nothing  but  sporangia. 

The  G-ametophyte 

Where  found.  The  spores  of  the  sporangia,  when  ger- 
minating, produce  small,  inconspicuous  plants  known  as 
gametophytes  or  prothalli.  The  green  coating  on  the  ground 
of  a  fern  house  is  largely  composed  of  these  minute  stages 
in  the  fern  life  history,  which,  with  the  fern  plants  (com- 
monly so  called),  consisting  of  leaf  and  rhizome,  constitute 
the  alternation  of  generations  of  the  fern. 

Structure.  Examine  a  gametophyte  (yip),  and  observe 
its  color  and  form.  What  features  remind  you  of  the  land 
liverworts?  Observe  the  cell  structure.  Discover  on  the 
lower  surface,  near  the  notch,  oblong  cells,  archegonia,  and, 
near  the  opposite  end,  more  or  less  mixed  with  rhizoids,  the 
antheridia.     What  is  the  actual  size  of  the  gametophyte? 

Drawings.     Make  the  following  drawings: 

1.  A  complete  sporophyte  (leaf  and  rhizome). 

2.  Details  of  venation  (??i  or  Ij^). 

3.  A  cross  section  of  a  fern  rhizome  to  show  the  various 

tissues  {Ip), 


142 


REPRESENTATIVE  PLANTS 


4.  The  several  tissues  (Ip)  to  show  cell  peculiarities. 

5.  The  upper  and  lower  epidermis  of  the  leaf,  with  the 

stomates  (Ijo  or  hj)). 

6.  Vernation. 

7.  Forms  of  sori  (m)  (round,  long,  and  marginal). 

8.  Sporangia  and  spores  (//)). 

9.  Sporophyll. 

10.  The  gametophyte  {IjS). 

11.  Fossil  ferns. 

12.  Several  fern  species  to  show  leaf  variation. 


Fossil  Ferris 

Coal.  Examine,  if  possiHe,  specimens  of  fossil  fertis  and 
observe  their  points  of  resemblance  to  the  ferns  of  to-day. 
What  is  a  fossil  plant  or  animal  ?  Fossil  or  preserved  ferns, 
with  the  related  horsetails  and  club  mosses,  were  in  part  the 
plants  out  of  which  coal  was  made.  Read  about  this  process 
of  coal  formation  and  learn  how  many  steps  or  stages  were 
necessary  from  the  living  ferns  and  gymnosperms  of  the 
ancient  swamps  to  the  veins  of  hard  and  soft  coal  as  found 
to-day.     (See  Coulter,  Barnes,  and  Cowles.) 

Fern  table.  Make  a  table  of  all  the  ferns  you  are  able  to 
study,  using  the  following  form  :  — 


Name 


Wild  ok 
Culti- 
vated 


A  MOUNT 

OF  Leaf 

DlVISION 


Color  of 
Sta  lk 


Eemarks 


Description.  Write  a  dear,  accurate,  and  general  description 
of  ferns,  embodying  all  the  results  of  your  study. 

Fern  problems.  From  all  your  observations,  and  from 
what  you  have  found  out  by  reading,  what  sort  of  environ- 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  143 

ment  furnishes  the  most  luxuriant  fern  growth?  Where, 
for  instance,  are  tree  ferns  abundant?  I  low  do  these  ferns 
differ  from  ferns  of  coUl  regions?  What  nuist  have  been 
the  condition  during  the  coal  period  for  ferns  to  be  so 
abundant  —  in  Illinois,  for  example  —  as  to  i)roduce,  when 
solidified  into  coal,  from  forty  to  one  hundred  feet  thickness 
of  the  same  in  twenty  veins?  How  do  hard  coal,  soft  coal, 
and  lignite  differ?  Where  are  the  coal  fields  of  the  world  ? 
There  are  nearly  three  thousand  kinds  of  ferns.  What  uses 
do  you  find  for  this  large  number  of  species  ? 

Pteris  aquilina  (the  common  brake  fern)  is  found  in  every 
considerable  land  area  on  tlie  earth.  What  would  this  show 
concerning  the  ancient  nature  of  this  species,  and  of  ferns 
in  general  ? 


O' 


Class  2.     Horsetails  and  Scouring  Rushes 

General  statement.  Material  for  study  may  be  easily  o))- 
tained  in  any  region,  but  for  practically  all  purposes,  dried 
and  mounted  specimens  are  as  satisfactory  as  fresh.  You 
may  have  observed,  in  your  spring  walks,  the  fertile  and 
sterile  stems  of  the  common  horsetail,  in  their  place  of 
growth  and  their  general  appearance.  Many  students  will 
remember  the  scouring  rushes  as  objects  of  use  in  childhood 
play,  under  the  names  "  snake  grass  "  or  "  pipes."  Examine 
the  horsetail,  and  observe  the  differences  between  t\\Q  fertW> 
aerial  stem  and  sterile  ;  the  former  being  known  by  its  cone 
of  fruit  at  the  summit.  How  do  the  two  forms  differ  in 
size,  color,  amount  of  branching,  hardness  of  stem,  and 
size  and  appearance  of  the  sheaths  of  scale  leaves  at  the 
nodes?  Examine  the  branches  of  the  sterile  stem  for 
leaves  of  similar  character. 

Leaves,  in  general,  are  the  food-making  organs  of  green 
plants.  What  part  must  do  tliis  work  in  the  horsetail? 
Examine  the  stem  (m,  vlp).     AN'hat  features  of  the  surface 


144  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

do  you  ti lid?  In  particular,  observe  the  rows  of  stomates, 
or  ])ores.  Rub  the  sterile  stems  between  your  fingers,  and 
also  on  apiece  of  rusty  tin.  What  do  you  notice?  Examine 
(m)  sections  of  the  sterile  and  fertile  stems.  What  do  you 
find  ?  Explain  any  advantage  of  this  condition  to  the  plant. 
Examine  the  underground  stem  (rhizome)  and  find  whether 
each  kind  of  aerial  stems  is  connected  to  it.  How  do  the 
appearance,  markings,  and  parts  correspond  to  those  of  the 
aerial  stems?  Where  are  the  roots  attached?  Are  there 
any  evidences  of  buds  ? 

Scouring  rush.  Examine  now  a  scouring  rush.  What 
structure  takes  the  place  of  the  aerial  stems  of  the  horse- 
tail ?  Observe  on  this  stem  the  different  features  found  in 
the  horsetail.  There  may  or  may  not  be  branches.  What, 
in  particular,  are  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  sto- 
mates {vl}))  ?  Determine  in  the  same  manner  as  for  horse- 
tails the  roughness  of  the  stem.  What  do  you  fiud?  Is 
the  name  appropriate? 

Reproduction.  Examine  fruiting  cones  {strobilus)  of  the 
horsetail,  or  preferably  those  of  the  scouring  rush.  Where 
are  they  situated?  What  is  their  general  appearance? 
Observe  the  platelike  structures  that  make  up  the  outer, 
surface  (sporophylls);  What  is  the  form  of  each  plate? 
Examine  (m)  a  single  detached  sporophyll,  side  view,  with 
its  stalk  and  expanded  end.  Study  the  saclike  structures 
(sporangia)  surrounding  the  stalk,  and  attached  to  the  inner 
face  of  the  plate.  How  many  are  there,  and  how  do  they 
correspond  to  the  number  of  sides  in  the  plate  ?  Crash  a 
sporangium  and  observe  the  spores  (Ijj).  What  is  their  color 
and  shape  ?  What  is  attached  to  them  ?  These  structures 
are  called  elaters. 

Breathe  on  some  spores,  very  gently,  and  observe  the 
results  (Ip).  What  x^urpose  may  be  attained  by  this 
peculiar  action  ?  What  use  was  made  of  scouring  rushes 
in   olden  times  ?      Read  about   "  Calamites  "  and  *'  Silica  ^' 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  145 

in  the  reference  books.    What  part  did  the  ancient  horse- 
tails have  in  the  formation  of  coal  ?     What  are  the  favorite 
environments  of  phmts  of  this  class  ?     Are  they  hydrophytes 
(water  })lants)  or  Xerophytes  (dry  land  plants)  ? 
Drawings.     Make  the  followini^  drawings: 

1.  A  complete  horsetail  (fertile  and  sterile  stems  and 
rhizomes). 

2.  Node  of  each  (m)  to  show  the  scale  leaves. 

3.  Stem  section  (ni). 

4.  Scouring  rush,  including  strobilus. 

5.  St^'obilus  (m). 

6.  Sporopliyll  and  spores  (Ip). 

7.  Stem  (Ij})  to  show  section  and  stomates. 

Class  3.     Club  Mossp:s 

Habitat.  Club  mosses,  such  as  lycopodium,  are  common 
in  northern  evergreen  woods.  Selaginella  is  found  native  in 
many  suitable  regions  south  of  the  evergreen  belt.  In  all 
large  cities,  however,  a  plentiful  supply  of  selaginella  may 
be  found,  commonly  in  park  greenhouses.  Dried  material 
may  be  put  up  during  the  summer  which  freshens  readily 
when  placed  in  water.  The  student  will  rarely  see  wild 
plants,  and  so  it  is  not  a  satisfactory  field  study. 

External  features.  Study  selaginella  and  observe  the  posi- 
tion of  the  plant  in  growth,  its  method  of  branching,  and 
the  color  and  arrangement  of  the  leaves.  Observe  also 
the  form,  color,  and  place  of  origin  of  the  aerial  roots. 
Examine  the  leaves  (m)  or  (Ip) ;  what  are  their  forms  and 
exact  arrangement  on  the  stem  ?  Why  are  there  two  sizes 
of  leaves?  Are  stomates  present  or  not?  Study  a  cross 
section  of  the  stem  and  compare  it  with  the  section  of  a 
fern  stem,  for  any  similar  tissues.  What  purpose  is  ful- 
filled by  the  air  roots? 

Reproduction.  Study  a  strobilus.  How  do  the  leaves 
differ  in  form  and  arrangement  from  those   of  the  stem? 


146  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Each  stiobilus  scale  is  a  sporoi)liyll.  Examine  ((2>)  the 
sporangia  borne  in  the  scale  axils.  How  many  kinds 
do  you  find,  and  how  do  they  differ?  Observe  the  greeyi 
sporangium  more  attentively.  What  is  its  form  and  size 
when  compared  with  that  of  the  scale?  Crush  one  and 
observe  the  large,  many-faced  spores,  megaspores.  What  can 
you  call  the  sporangium  which  produces  megaspores  only? 
How  many  spores  do  you  find  in  each?  Examine  the  other 
kind  of  sporangium.  What  is  its  color  and  comparative 
size?  W^hat  markings  are  on  its  surface?  Crush  one  and 
observe  the  spores.  Are  they  few  or  many,  large  or  small  ? 
Name  the  sporangium.  In  a  strobilus  try  to  determine  the 
number  of  each  kind  of  sporangia. 

Drawings.     Make  careful  drawings  of  the  following :  — 

1.  A  spray  of  selaginella  (natural  size). 

2.  A  portion  of  stem  with  leaves  (m). 

3.  A  leaf  (Ij^). 

4.  A  cone  (^m), 

5.  Mega-  and  microsporangia  (Ip). 
G.    Spores  of  the  two  sizes  (/p). 

Description.  Write  a  careful  description  of  selaginella 
or  lycopodium. 

Lycopodium  is  similar  to  selaginella,  but  has  only  one 
form  of  sporangium,  and  there  are  leaf  differences  of  impor- 
tance. It  may  be  substituted,  but  selaginella  is  the  better 
plant. 

Fossil  club  mosses.  Read  about  "  Lepidodendron "  and 
"Sigillaria"  in  the  reference  books.  Wliat  part  did  these 
ancient  club  mosses  have  in  the  production  of  coal  ?  What 
is  lycopodium  powder  ? 

Conclusions  from  fern-plant  study.  Evolution.  You  ought 
to  be  able  to  understand  and  state  the  new  features  intro- 
duced by  the  fern-plant  classes,  i.e.,  ferns,  horsetails,  and 
club  mosses.  The  marked  increase  in  complexity,  the  inter- 
esting  life   history    (alternation  of   generations),  and  the 


A   MANUAL  OF  BOTANY  147 

value  ot  the  same,  and  the  leatures  that  lead  up  to  and  re- 
semble the  cone-bearing  trees  (the  next  study).  All  these 
features  are  a  [)art  of  the  evolution  of  plants  from  lower  to 
higher  forms,  and  more  or  less  clearly  point  out  (what  is 
the  belief  commonly  held  among-  scientific  men)  that  all 
the  complex  structures  of  the  highest  fiower  plants  have 
been  slowly  evolved  in  the  long  past  history  of  our  earth, 
from  lower  and  simpler  forms,  and  these  in  like  manner 
from  yet  simpler,  until  at  length  we  reach  the  primordial 
cell  as  in  pleurococcus,  or  some  similar  structure.  All  the 
factors  entering  into  these  changes  of  form  are  not  clearly 
known,  but  the  effect  of  environment,  the  survival  of  useful 
and  beneficial  qualities,  the  influence  of  heredity,  and,  above 
all,  the  tendency  of  the  Uvinri  principle  to  variations,  small 
and  great,  have  much  to  do  with  the  changes  wrought. 
This  is  a  very  difficult  subject,  and  it  is  only  hinted  at  here 
that  you  may  know  a  little  about  the  theory  that  men  use 
to  explain  the  great  diversity  of  plant  forms  that  at  the 
same  time  are  connected  by  features  of  structure  and  repro- 
duction. 

SFXTION   V.     THE   SEED   PLANTS 

Class  I.    Gymnosperms     (Conifers,  "Evergreens") 
A.     INTRODUCTORY 

We  have  now  finished  our  examination  of  the  plants  of 
the  three  branches  (Thallus,  Moss,  and  Fern)  below  the 
Seed  Plants,  the  last  and  highest  of  these  great  groups. 
These  lower  plants  have  often  been  called  Jlowerleas  plants, 
not  possessing  flowers.  Another  term  commonly  applied  is 
cryptograms,  which  signifies  a  hidden  or  obscure  reproduc- 
tion. A  better  understanding  of  them  is,  however,  given  by 
the  use  of  the  three  terms  above. 

The  Seed  Plants,  while  in  many  features  very  diverse, 
unite  in  the  production  of  seeds,  structui'es  diiferent  from, 


148  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

anything  found  among  the  lower  i)lants.  The  higher  fern 
plants,  however,  have  numerous  points  of  resemblance  to 
the  gymnosperms  or  lowest  seed  plants. 

This  branch  offers  a  study  much  more  familiar  to  most 
students,  for  the  types  used  are,  as  a  rule,  known  to  every- 
one, and  not  obscure  forms  or  those  of  small  interest  except 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  trained  botanist. 

B.     TYPES 

Type  1.    Pines  ^ 

Material  for  study.  Good  pine  material  may  be  obtained 
anywhere,  either  from  cultivated  or  wild  trees.  It  is  desir- 
able to  have  as  large  a  variety  as  possible.  White,  Scotch, 
and  Austrian  pines  are  generally  grown.  The  pitch  or  long- 
leaved  pine  may  often  be  obtained  during  the  holidays,  and 
in  some  regions  other  native  species  occur.  The  general 
form  of  the  trees  is  to  be  observed,  the  arrangement  of  the 
branches  (compare  with  cliara),  and  the  great  prominence 
of  the  central  axis ;  the  somber  green  of  the  "  needle" 
foliage  should  be  noticed,  and  the  brown  remains  of  fallen 
leaves.  Examine  the  trunk  for  evidence  of  the  sticky, 
resinous  sap.  Are  the  leaves  really  evergreen  ?  How  long 
does  the  leaf  remain  on  the  tree?  Examine  the  surface  of 
a  pine  branch  below  the  leaf-bearing  portion  and  observe 
the  covering  of  protecting  scales.  How  are  they  arranged  ? 
Examine  now  the  leafy  portion  for  the  same  structures. 
What  position  do  they  have  with  reference  to  the  short 
dwarfed  branches  which  bear  the  leaves.  Examine  a  dwarf 
branch  for  its  size  and  covering.  How  many  leaves  does  it 
bear  ?  Compare  the  different  species  at  hand  and  observe 
the  variations,  if  any  in  number. 

Leaf  details.  Examine  a  leaf  and  observe  its  shape  and 
the  degree  of   stiffness  or  rigidity.     Measure  for  length. 

1  Narrow-leaved  evergreens  with  needlelike  leaves. 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY  149 

What  shape  has  it  in  section  ?  Examine  the  surface  (m) 
for  dotlike  markings  (stoniates).  Are  there  few  or  many 
of  these?  Where  are  they  distributed  and  how  are  they 
arranged  ?  What  color  has  the  mature  leaf?  If  possible, 
compare  it  with  the  young  leaf  for  form,  size,  and  color. 
Examine  a  leaf  in  cross  section  (Ip)  and  look  for  the  outer 
epidermis,  much  thickened,  the  central  vascular  bundle,  and 
the  meaophyll  containing  resin  ducts  or  small  openings  in  the 
outer  portion.  Carefully  study  each  region  and  determine 
the  character  of  the  cells  and  their  arrangement.  What 
use  has  each  of  these  features  of  the  leaf  ?  Observe  the 
palisade  cells  (or  the  outer  layer  of  mesophyll).  How  are 
the  cells  arranged  with  reference  to  the  epidermis  ?  What 
are  the  advantages  of  such  an  arrangement  ? 

Stem  in  section.  Examine  a  section  of  a  young  stem. 
The  layers  from  outside  towards  the  center  are  the  bark, 
ivood,  and  pith.  Seek  for  resin  ducts  in  the  bark.  Observe 
the  sticky  cut  end  of  the  twig  and  test  its  odor.  Study,  if 
you  have  them  at  hand,  thin  sections  of  pine  wood,  cross 
and  long,  observing  cells  and  their  peculiar  form  and  mark- 
ings. Examine  pieces  of  white  and  yellow  pine  lumber, 
and  find  the  difference  in  color,  tceiyht,  grain,  and  hai'dness. 
Which  would  be  the  better  lumber  for  various  building  pur- 
poses ?  Read  about  pine  lumber  and  find  all  the  many 
uses  of  the  different  species  that  time  will  permit. 

Staminate  inflorescence  "blossoms."  Examine  the  fresh  or 
dried  specimen  of  the  staminati'.  inflorescence  (sporophylls) 
of  the  pine.  Where  is  it  located  with  reference  to  the  old 
and  young  leaves,  and  of  what  is  it  composed  ?  Examine  a 
single  part  (cone  of  sporophylls)  and  observe  the  scales 
(microspoi'ophylls)  composing  it.  Remove  the  scale  (m) 
and  find  the  receptacles  containing  the  yellow  powder  {pollen 
or  microspores).  What  name  would  you  apply  to  the  recep- 
tacles ?  Examine  pollen  {hp)  and  observe  all  its  peculiari- 
ties.    What  do  you  Hnd  out  about  the  number  of  pollen 


150  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

grains  ?  Why  do  the  grains  have  wings  ?  In  the  older  bot- 
anies, these  sporophylls  are  called  stamens,  and  the  sporangia 
anthers  ;  hence  the  term  used  above,  "  staminate  sjjorojyhylV 

Pistillate  inflorescence.  Examine  the  "pistillate  inflor- 
escence." Where  is  it  situated  ?  What  is  the  size  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  small  cone  ?  Is  it  erect  or  nodding  ?  Study 
the  scale  arrangement.  "What  name  would  you  apply  to  the 
scale  ?  Examine  the  scale  sporangia  (here  called  megaspo- 
raiujia).  How  many  are  there  ?  How  many  spores  in  each 
sporangium?  Examine  a  "cone  of  the  first  year."  What 
is  its  size  and  position  ?  Is  it  erect  or  nodding  ?  Why  is 
there  a  difference  in  position  of  the  megasporophyll  cone 
and  the  yearling  cone  ?  Examine  a  mature  cone  and  ob- 
serve its  form  and  scale  arrangement.  Where  is  it  situated 
with  reference  to  the  apical  bud  ?  Examine  an  opened  cone 
and  find  the  seeds.  Are  they  freely  exposed  to  the  air 
(naked)  or  are  they  entirely  inclosed  in  a  seed  container  of 
some  sort?  How  do  the  seeds  escape  from  the  cone?  Re- 
move a  seed  and  notice  the  peculiarities.  Observe  the  wing. 
What  purpose  has  it  ?  (Throw  a  seed  up  into  the  air  and 
watch  it  fall.)  How  many  seeds  are  there  in  a  scale  ?  How 
many  to  a  cone  ? 

Drawings.     Make  drawings  of  the  following : 

1.  Pine  spray  to  show  leaf  number. 

2.  Dwarf  branch  with  leaves  (each  species). 

3.  Leaf  portion  {m)  to  show  stomates. 

4.  Leaf  section  (Ip). 

5.  Stem  section  (Z^)). 

G.  Long  and  cross  section  of  pine  wood  (Jp). 

7.  Staminate  sporophyll  cone. 

8.  Pollen  (/|7). 

9.  Pistillate  cones  of  all  stages. 
10.  Seed. 

Other  work.  Read  about  the  pines.  Where  do  they  grow  ? 
What  agency  is  necessary  to  enable  pines  to  carry  out  their 


A  MANUAL   OF   BOTANY 


151 


reproduction  ?  (Look  up  aueiiioi)liilous.)  Of  what  com- 
mercial importance  are  pines?  What  are  "naval  stores"? 
Make  a  table  of  the  useful  products  directly  or  indirectly 
depending  on  pines,  thus  : 


Name  ok  V 


WiiKKK  Found 


Part  I'sed 


»\V    PkKI'AltKK 


Use 


Study  of  woods.  Study  the  varieties  of  woods  used  for 
cabinet  and  general  building  purposes,  and  observe  the  colory 
grain,  Juwdness,  susceptibility  to  jjolish,  iveight,  odor,  and  other 
features.  ^lake  a  table  embodying  the  results  of  your  study, 
usincr  the  followinsr  lieadinij:s: 


Name  ok 
Wool) 


Where 
Native 


Grain 


Pol  IS 


Lumber.  What  are  meant  by  "  hard  *'  and  "  soft "  pines  ? 
Why  are  such  lumbers  so  much  used  by  carpenters  ?  Why 
are  pine  woods  not  durable  when  kept  moist?  What  is 
lumber?  What  is  pine  lumber  worth  per  thousand  feet? 
Why  is  pine  lumber  so  important  ?  What  are  timbers  ? 
Into  what  building  forms  are  pine  logs  sawed?  Where 
does  the  pine  lumber  come  from  that  is  found  in  our 
lumber  yards?      What  is  forestry? 


152  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

Type  2.     TJie  Spruces.     Short-leaved  Evergreens 

Where  growing.  Spruce  trees  are  common  evergreens  in 
cultivation,  more  especially  the  lUue  and  Norway.  Two 
otlier  common  species  are  the  ''  black "  and  "  white " ; 
these  are  the  ordinary  "  Christmas  trees "  and  are  very 
abundant  natives  of  the  northeastern  United  States.  The 
tree  as  it  grows  ought  to  be  observed,  if  possible,  —  its 
regularity  of  form  and  branching  and  the  marked  ar- 
rangement of  branches.  Compare  the  form  with  that  of  a 
pine. 

Sprays.  Examine  a  spray  of  several  years'  growth.  What 
arrangement  has  the  branches  ?  How  can  you  tell  the  end 
of  a  year's  growth  ?  Examine  the  apical  bud  and  the  lateral 
buds  adjacent  to  it.  How  do  these  help  you  to  explain  the 
branching  arrangement  and  position  ?  How  many  "years'  " 
growths  of  the  main  stem  are  leaf  bearing  ?  Below  the 
leaves  observe  the  bark  surface  and  the  similarity  to  the 
pines. 

Leaves.  Examine  the  leaves.  How  are  they  borne  on 
the  twigs,  like  the  pines  or  otherwise  ?  What  directions 
with  reference  to  the  twig  do  they  assume  ?  Observe  the 
number.  Examine  a  leaf  (???).  What  is  its  color,  shape, 
and  size?  How  many  surfaces  has  it?  Examine  (Ip)  for 
stomates  and  the  nature  of  the  margin  and  point  (apex). 
Examine  a  cross  section  (Ip)  and,  compare  it  with  a  similar 
section  of  the  pine.  In  what  do  they  agree  and  in  what  do 
they  differ  ?  ^lake  drawings  showing  spray,  single  leaf  (?>i), 
and  cross  section  (Ip). 

Reproduction.  The  process  of  reproduction  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  pine.  If  possible  compare  the  cones  of 
the  two  types,  observing  points  of  resemblance  and  dif- 
ference. 

Uses.  Read  about  the  uses  of  spruces  in  paper  making. 
What  other  uses  have  they  ?    What  is  "  spruce  gum  "  ? 


A   MANUAL   OF  BOTANY  153 

Ty^e  3.     Arhor  liter  (  Wliife  Cedar) 

Place  of  growth.  This  tree  is  native  of  most  parts  of 
northeastern  United  States  and  is  commonly  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  tree.  As  *'  white  cedar,"  it  is  universally 
known  in  the  north  as  a  tine  timber  and  lumber  tree, 
especially  in  railroad  and  telegraph  construction. 

Leafy  spray.  Examine  a  spray  and  observe  the  color, 
odor,  and  general  appearance  of  the  leaves.  How  do  they 
differ  from  those  of  pines  and  spruces?  They  are  said  to 
be  scalelike.  How  are  they  arranged  on  the  twig  ?  Ex- 
amine (//))  and  find  the  exact  shape. 

Cones.  Examine  the  megasporophyll  mature  cojies.  Com- 
pare them  in  size,  color,  and  number  of  scales  with  those  of 
the  pine.  Are  the  cones  few  or  many  ?  Look  at  the  seeds 
and  observe  the  features. 

Drawings.     Draw  a  spray,  leaves  (Ij)),  cone,  and  seed. 

Other  work.  Read  about  white  cedar,  ties,  posts,  oil  of 
cedar,  cedar  knees,  and  arhor  vitce  in  medicine.  Also  the 
use  of  the  tree  in  horticulture,  and  notice  the  great  number 
of  varieties.  What  qualities  make  a  wood  durable  ?  Rail- 
road companies  often  "  doctor  "  ties.  What  is'meant  by  this  ? 
Why  are  cedar  ties  and  posts  better  than  white  oak,  particu- 
larly if  they  have  been  treated  to  prevent  decay?  Creosote 
is  now  in  general  use  for  this  purpose. 

Type  4.    Balsam  Fir  and  Hemlock 

"Where  growing.  These  trees  are  common  in  the  conifer- 
ous forests  of  the  north  and  are  occasionally  cultivated  for 
ornament.  The  balsam  is  infrequently  used  as  a  Christmas 
tree.  If  possible,  examine  the  standing  trees  to  observe 
their  peculiar  characters. 

Spray  and  leaves.  Study  small  twigs  or  leafy  shoots  of 
each  tree.     What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  on  the 


154  REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 

twig  ?  In  liow  many  directions  from  the  twig  do  the  leaves 
project  ?     What  do  you  notice  concerning  the  odor  ? 

Examine  a  leaf.  What  shape  has  it  ?  Is  it  flat,  round, 
or  angular  in  section  ?  Examine  for  a  midrib.  Observe 
the  color  of  the  two  surfaces,  upper  and  lower.  If  the  two 
species  are  at  hand,  place  side  by  side  for  comparison  of 
color,  leaf  size,  odor,  and  other  features. 

Cones.  Examine  mature  cones  of  each  tree  and  observe 
their  peculiarities.  Can  you  tell  the  trees  apart  by  their 
cones  ?     Examine  the  seeds. 

Drawings.  Draw  sprays,  single  leaves  {m),  leaf  sections 
(??i),  and  cones. 

Uses  of.  Read  about  hemlock  and  balsam  fir,  seeking  to 
discover  all  possible  uses  for  these  trees.  What  connection 
has  balsam  with  the  paper  pulp  industry  ?  Read  about,  in 
particular,  the  tanning  of  leather  and  the  connection  of 
hemlock  with  this  important  industry.  What  effect  on 
animal  tissues  has  tannic  acid  ?  What  sort  of  lumber  does 
hemlock  make  ?  Compare  with  pine.  Is  it  more  or  less 
valuable  ? 


Type  5.    Juniper  {cornmon')  and  Red   Cedar 

Material  for  study.  The  trees  are  not  very  common  in 
cultivation,  and  it  may  not  be  possible  to  obtain  fresh  mate- 
rial except  in  favored  locations,  as  there  are  many  regions 
where  the  trees  do  not  grow  wild.  Where  obtainable,  how- 
ever, they  are  fine  forms  for  study. 

Sprays  and  leaves.  Examine  the  spray  of  leaves.  Ob- 
serve the  general  appearance  of  the  twig.  What  shape  has 
the  individual  leaf  ?  What  is  its  size  ?  What  do  you  find 
regarding  size  ?  Are  they  all  of  one  size  ?  How  are  the 
leaves  arranged  ?  on  the  twig  ?  On  contact  with  the  skin, 
what  do  you  notice  as  to  the  leaf  points  ? 

Cones  and  fruits.     Examine  the  microsporophyll  cones,  if- 


A  MANUAL  OF   BOTANY 


155 


they  are  obtainable.  Observe  their  size  and  any  features 
similar  to  those  of  pines. 

Examine  the  juniper  '  berries"  or  megasporophyll  fruits 
(hardly  possible  to  call  them  cones).  What  color  and  size 
do  you  observe  ?  Taste  them  and  observe  the  result.  Ex- 
amine carefully  for  seeds.     What  do  you  find  ? 

Drawings.  Draw  a  spray,  some  leaves  (m),  microsporo- 
pliyll  cones  (m),  and  the  berries. 

Uses.  Read  about  "  Juniper  "  and  "  Red  Cedar  "  and  find 
out  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  Read  the  subject  "  Cedar 
Apple  "  and  find  the  connection  to  a  disease  of  apples. 

Examine  red  cedar  wood  and  discover  its  peculiarities. 
What  special  uses  are  made  of  it  ?  Why  is  it  so  durable  ? 
Where  does  the  red  cedar  of  commerce  come  from  ? 


Addenda 

A  table  of  conifers.     Make  a  table  of  all  the  conifers  you 
are  able  to  find  by  reading  or  investigating,  as  follows : 


Name 


CfU'NTKY 

Pkoi)itoin(; 


UsK  AND  Value 

FOR    LUMIJER 


Use  in 
Manufacturing 


Noteworthy 
Features 


Coniferous  forests.  Why  are  coniferous  forests  largely 
cold  temperate  in  their  distribution  ?  What  habits  and 
structural  features  of  pines  and  spruces,  in  particular,  fit 
them  for  cold  snowy  regions  ?  Why  are  they  not  destroyed 
by  animals  (herbivorous)  in  winter,  when  they  are  the  only 
green  things  ?  What  are  mixed  forests  ?  What  peculiar- 
ity in  this  respect  do  conifers  show  ?  Where  are  the  great 
coniferous  forests  of  America  ?  What  conifers  are  found 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  ?     What  are  the  agents  at  work 


156 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


to  destroy  these  forests  ?  What  is  the  prospect  of  their 
permanent  continuance  ?  How  does  Germany  manage  such 
forests  ?  ^lake  a  map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projec- 
tion and  show  the  coniferous  forest  belt  by  a  green  tint. 
Try  to  make  the  distinction  as  exact  as  possible. 

Class  II.     Angiosperms   (Common  Flowering  Plants) 

The  subject  title  is  introduced  here  to  show  the  student 
the  proper  sequence  and  position  of  the  highest  group  of 
plants.  Their  study  has  been  taken  up  in  Part  I  of  this 
work. 

SECTION  VT.     SIMPLE   CLASSIFICATION   OF  PLANTS 

Branch  I.        Thallophytes,  or  Thallus  Plants. 

The  lowest  and  simplest  of  plants,  without 
true  stem  and  leaf. 

Class  I.         Fission  Plants.     Bacteria,  Bacilli.     Blue-green 
Algce. 
The  so-called  germs.     The  lowest,  simplest, 
and  smallest  organisms,  in  large  part  with- 
out   chlorophyll,   largely    parasites,    many 
injurious,  some  of  great  value. 
Glass  II.       Fungi,     Molds,     Busts,     Yeasts,    Mushrooms, 
Lichens. 
Plants  without  chlorophyll ;   many  parasites  ; 
often  saprophytic ;  many  of  value. 
Class  III.     Algce.     Green,  brown,  and  red  forms. 

Plants  mostly  aquatic,  with  chlorophyll; 
mostly  independent;  many  useful  for  food, 
medicine,  etc. 

Branch  II.     Bryophytes,  or  Moss  Plants. 

Green  plants  of  some  complexity  with  com- 
bined parasite  and  independent  genera- 
tions ;    the  mosses  with  small  leaves. 


A   MANUAL   OF   BOTANY  157 

Class  I.  Hepattcs,  or  Licerworts.  Flattened  horizontal 
thallus  forms  or  mosslike. 

Class  II.     Mosses  proper^  with  two  subclasses. 

A.  Ordinary  mosses,  mostly  terrestrial  or  arboreal,  some 

aquatic. 

B.  Sphagnum  forms,  aquatic.     Peat  producers. 

Branch  III.    Pteridophytes,  or  Fern  Plants.^ 

Green  plants,  mostly  leafy,  commonly  with  un- 
derground stems ;  marked  alternation  of  gen- 
erations and  complicated  spore  production. 

Class  I.  Ferns.  Several  thousand  species  of  fernlike 
aspect. 

Class  II.     Horsetails  and  scouring  rushes. 

Green,  hollow,  jointed  stems  and  scale  leaves; 
conelike  spore  structures. 

Class  III.  Club  mosses.  Mosslike  plants  with  conelike 
spore  fruits. 

Branch  IV.    Spermatophytes,  or  Seed  Plants. 

Plants  with  so-called  flowers  and  seed  pro- 
duction. 

Class  I.  Gymnosperms,  or  naked  seeds ;  narrow  or  scale 
leaves  (usually),  mostly  evergreen;  pines, 
spruces,  cedars,  yews,  —  big  trees. 

(Jlass  II.     Angiosjyerms,  or  covered  seeds;   vastly  im})or- 
tant. 
Ordinary  flowering  plants  of  two  subclasses; 

A.  Monocotyledons,  or  one-seed  le<(f;  grasses,  lilies,  iris, 

orchids,  etc. 

B.  Diocotyledons,  or  two-seed  leaves;  pinks,  crowfoots, 

mustards,  roses,  peas,  and  hosts  of  others. 

1  Onl}'  the  more  important  classes  are  named. 


158 


REPRESENTATIVE   PLANTS 


REVIEW   TABLE,   NO.   I 

Make  a  table  below,  filling  out  each  column  for  each  plant 
studied. 


Name       Bran<  ii        Plant  Body        Size        Coum       Life  Haiut        Rkmak 


REVIEW   TABLE,   NO.  II 

Methods  of  Reproduction 


Cell 
Division 


Vegetative 

MlTLTIPLICA- 
TION^. 


Cell  Union, 
isogamous  or 
IIeterogamous 


Alteration 

of 
Generation* 


IIeterospory 

OR 
ISOSPORY 


REVIEW   TABLE,   NO.    IIL 
Table  of  Plant  Associations 


Name  of 
Plant 


Branch  ani> 
Class 


Nature  of 
Environment 


Peculiarities 


1  Other  than  a  single  cell. 


INDEX 


Adder's  tongue,  54,  65. 

Adventitious  roots,  11. 

Aerial  roots,  18,  145. 

Air-chambers,  133. 

Alga,  algas,  i)3-115  ;  blue-green, 
93,  90  ;  brown,  109-112  ;  green, 
103-108;  red,  112-113;  tables 
of,  96,  102,  111;  classification 
of,  180. 

Alternation  of  generations,  13(5, 
141. 

Amanitas,  deadly,  123. 

Angiosperms,  150, 

Annuals,  37, 

Anther,  47. 

Antheridia,  107,  110,  114,  133. 

Antheridial  branch,  l."5;!. 

Apple  Family,  01. 

Apetalous,  50. 

Apetalous  flowers,  50,  57. 

Apical  bud,  17,  24,  114,  139. 

Apothccia,  129. 

Applied  work,  on  seeds,  0,  7  ;  on 
roots,  10  ;  on  stems,  22,  24,  25, 
20,  28,  30  ;  on  leaves,  42,  43, 
44  ;  on  flowers,  49,  53,  54,  50, 
59,  00,  01,  02,  04,  05,  68,  (59, 
72,  79  ;  on  fruits,  81  ;  on  lower 
plants.  111,  115. 

Arl)()r  vitie,  153. 

Arcliegonia,  133. 

Archegonial  branch,  133. 

Associations,  83. 

Bacteria,  117,  118,  119. 
Bacteria  and  soil,  05. 
Balsam  fir,  153. 
Bark,  27,  149. 
Bast,  13i>. 
Beans,  1,  2. 
Biemiials,  37. 
Black  mold,  119. 
Blade,  32,  35,  138. 


Blister,  1, 

Blue-green  algse,  95. 

Bracket  nuishrooms,  125. 

Bracts,  47,  09. 

liranchlets,  110. 

Bread-making,  110. 

Brown  alg*,  109. 

Bud  arrangement,  19. 

Budding,  61, 

Buds,  17. 

Bud  structure,  17,  18. 

Bulbs,  24. 

Bundle  sheath,  139, 

Burs,  90. 

Buttercups,  57. 

Cabinet  woods,  28. 

Calyptra,  130. 

Calyx,  52. 

Cap,  122. 

Capsule,  130. 

(^arrot,  07. 

Catkins,  40,  48. 

Cedar,  153. 

Cell-divi.sion,  94,  101. 

Cells,  94,  114. 

Cell-wall,  94. 

Central  axis,  11. 

Chara,  113. 

Chlorophyll,  93. 

Chloroplasts,  99,  131. 

Chorii)etalous,  57. 

Christmas  trees,  152,  154. 

Cladophora,  104. 

Classification,  104, 

Classification  of  plants,  150. 

Cleistogamous,  07. 

Climbing  stems,  20. 

Club  mosses,  145. 

Coal,  142. 

Colony,  97. 

Complete  leaf,  32. 

C'omposite  Family,  7(),  83,  92, 


169 


160 


INDEX 


Composition  of  roots  and  seeds, 

14. 
Compound  leaves,  85. 
Conceptacle,  110. 
Cones,  144,  149. 
Coniferous  forests,  156. 
Conifei-s,  147. 
Conjugation,  100. 
Corn,  3. 
Corolla,  52. 
Cortex,  11,  27. 
Cortical  cell,  114. 
Corymb,  57. 
Cotyledons,  2. 
Crowfoot  Family,  66. 
Cupule,  182. 
Cypripedium,  55. 
Cytoplasm,  94. 

Desmids,  103. 
Diadelphous,  64. 
Diatoms,  111. 
Dicotyledons,  2,  27. 
Diojcious,  50. 
Disk,  86. 

Divided  leaves,  35.     v 
Dog-tooth  Violet,  54. 
Dogwood  Family,  69. 
Downs,  91. 

Ecology,  38,  41,  103,  130. 

Elater,  133,  144. 

Embryo,  2,  3. 

Endosperm,  4. 

Epidermis,  11,  33,  139,  149. 

Erythronium,  64. 

Experiments,  seed,  2,  9,  10  ; 
seedling,  8,  9  ;  root,  13,  14,  15  ; 
stem,  21,  22  ;  leaf,  39,  40, 
41  ;  flower,  66,  GG,  79;  fruits, 
90,  91,  92;  algaj,  95,  98,  99, 
101,  108,  109  ;  fungi,  115,  116, 
117,  119;  mosses,  136,  137. 

Evergreen  leaves,  38. 

Evergreens,  147. 

Evolution,  146. 

Fall  flowers,  83. 
Fall  fruits,  90. 
Fern  plants,  137-147. 
Ferns,  137. 


Fertilization,  48. 

Field  work,  algje,  129 ;  fungi, 
129 ;  mosses,  134 ;  ferns,  138; 
flower-plants,  45-79. 

Figwort  Family,  73. 

Filament,  47,  98. 

Flower-parts,  84. 

Flower  plan,  66. 

Flower-rank,  76. 

Flower  tables,  65,  GG,  75,  77,  78, 
85,  87. 

Flowers,  45-79. 

Food  of  green  plants,  94  ,  108, 
109. 

Food  of  plants  without  chloro- 
phyll, 115,  117,    119. 

Food  storage,  3. 

Forestry,  29. 

Fossil  ferns,  142. 

Fruits,  79,  81,  90. 

Fungi,  117-129;  cup.  126;  high- 
er, 121,  124  ;  imperfect.  116  ; 
sac,  126. 

Funiclilus,  3. 

Gametes,  107. 

Gametophyte,  100,  135,  141. 
Gamopetalous,  69. 
Gemmae,  132. 
Genus,  100. 
Geranium,  32. 
Germination,  8,  106. 
Germs,  117. 
Gills,  122. 
Grafting,  61. 
Green  algaj,  103. 
Green  felt,  106. 
Green  plants,  94. 
Growing  point,  18. 
Guard-cells,  33,  132. 
Gymnospenns,  147-156. 

Habitat,  83. 
Haustoria,  128. 
Hazel,  50. 
Head,  76. 
Hemlock,  153. 
Hepaticas,  56. 
Hilum,  1,  3. 

Honeysuckle  Family,  76. 
Horse-tails,  143. 


INDEX 


161 


Hydrodiction,  97. 
Hydrophytes,  103,  146. 
Hypocotyl,  2,  3,  4. 
Hypocotyl  arch,  8. 

Inflorescence,  57,  84,  149. 
Insect-pollination,  48,  56. 
Internodes,  114. 
Involucre,  70. 
Irregular  flowers,  65. 

Juniper,  154. 

Keel,  64. 

Labiate,  72. 

Lady  slipper,  55. 

Latex,  71. 

Leaflet,  35. 

Leaf  mosaics,  37. 

Leaf  rosettes,  36. 

Leaf  scars,  18. 

Leaf  work  or  functions,  39,  40, 
41. 

Leaves,  32-45,  138  ;  arrangement 
of,  36  ;  compound,  35  ;  division 
of,  35  ;  parts  of,  32  ;  physiol- 
ogy of,  39-41;  modifications  of, 
37  ;  simple,  35  ;  structure  of, 
139. 

Lenticels,  18. 

Lichens,  128. 

Lily  Family,  51. 

Liverworts,  130-134;  land,  131, 
134;  water,  1.30. 

Lumber,  28,  151,  157. 

Lycopodium,  145. 

Main  axis,  110. 
Marchantia,  l-'U. 
Marsh  Marigold,  56. 
Megasporangia,  150. 
Megaspores,  53,  150. 
Mosopliyll,  34,  149. 
Micr()i)yle,  1. 
Microsporangia,  52,  149. 
Microspores,  52,  149. 
Midrib,  33,  110,  154. 
Mildews,  127. 
Milkweed  Family,  70. 
Mint  Family,  73. 


Molds,  119,  121. 
Monocotyledons,  4,  27. 
Monodelphous,  64. 
Monoecious,  50. 
Morels,  126. 
Mosaics,  leaf,  37. 
Mosses,  134. 
Moss-plants,  130-137. 
Mushrooms,  121-125. 
Mustard  Family,  58. 
Mycelium,  120. 

Nasturtium,  83. 
Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  65. 
Nodes,  2,  114. 
Nodules,  99. 
Nostoc,  95. 
Nucleus,  94. 

Oogonium,  107,  110,  114. 
Oosphere,  107. 
Oospore,  107,  135. 
Operculum,  136. 
Oscillatoria,  95. 
Osmosis,  109. 
Ovary,  48,  54,  56. 
Ovules,  48,  53. 

Palisade  cells,  34,  149. 

Panicle,  57. 

Parasitic  plants,  74. 

Parenchyma,  139. 

Parsnip  or  par.sley  Family,  67. 
^^  Family,  64. 
Hdicel,  48. 

TTeduncle,  51. 

Peristome,  136. 

Petals,  52. 

Petiole,  138. 

Phloem,  139. 

Photosynthesis,  40,  101. 

Physiology,  of  seeds,  9,  10 ;  of 
seedlings,  9,  10 ;  of  roots,  12  ; 
of  stems,  31,  32  ;  of  leaves,  39, 
40,  41;  of  flowers,  48,  49;  of 
fruits,  80,  90,  91  ;  of  algit,  101, 
103,  108  ;  of  fungi,  116. 

Pileus,  122. 

Pines,  148. 

I*ine  seeds,  4. 

Pistil,  48. 


162 


INDEX 


Pith,  27,  149. 
Pith  rays,  27. 
Pleurococcus,  93. 
Plumule,  2. 

Polemonium  Family,  72. 
Pollen,  47.  149. 
Pollination,  48,  5(3,  04,  71. 
Polypetalous,  57. 
Pond  scums,  98. 
Pore,  122. 
Potato,  22. 
Prairies,  70. 
Prickles,  20. 
Primary  roots,  10. 
Primrose  Family,  69. 
Prop  roots,  13. 
Protonema,  135. 
Prune  Family,  63. 
Pruninu;,  61. 
Puff-balls,  124. 

Raceme,  57. 

Kadicle,  10. 

Kay,  86. 

Receptacle,  54. 

Red  cedar,  154. 

Red  seaweeds,  112. 

Resin  ducts,  149. 

Rhizoids,  107. 

Rhizomes,  23,  57,  139. 

Riccia,  130. 

Rincr,  122. 

Rockweed,  109. 

Roots,  10-17;  adventitious,  11; 
forms  of,  12  ;  primary,  10  ;  sec- 
ondary, 11;  structure  of,  11; 
tap-root,  10. 

Root-cap,  11. 

Root-hairs,  11,  12. 

Root-tip,  11. 

Rose  Family,  60. 

Rusts,  126. 

Scape,  54. 

Scientific  name,  100. 

Scouring  rushes,  143. 

Seeds,    1-7  ;    bean,   1  ;    corn,   3 ; 

pine,  4  ;  experiments  with,  9  ; 

composition  of,  5  ;   physiology 

of,  9,  10. 
Seed  coat,  2, 


Seed  leaves,  2. 

Seedlings,  7-10. 

Seed  plants,  147-156. 

Seed  table,  6. 

Selaginella,  145. 

Sepal,  52. 

Sessile,  51. 

Seta,  136. 

Sexual  reproduction,  107. 

Smuts,  127. 

Soil,  13,  65,  66. 

Sori,  140. 

Species,  100. 

Sperm  cells,  114,  135. 

Spirogyra,  98. 

Sporangia,  120,  136,  140. 

Spores,  100,  122,  140. 

Sporophyll,  50,  141.  144,  149. 

Sporophyte,  133,  136,  138.    - 

Spraying,  63-64. 

Spruce,  152. 

Spur,  67. 

Stamens,  47. 

Standard,  64. 

Stele,  11. 

Stems,  17-32  ;  features  of,  17  ; 
climbing,  20 ;  miscellaneous, 
25;  modified,  21;  physiology 
of,  29,  31  ;  structure  of,  26. 

Stigma,  48. 

Stipules,  32. 

Stomates,  33,  132,  140. 

Strobilus,  144,  145. 

Style,  48. 

Sweet  pea,  64. 

Symbiosis,  129. 

Sympetalous,  69,  70. 

Tables,  algjii,  96,  102-111  ;  coni- 
fers, 155  ;  climbing  stems,  21  ; 
commercial  woods,  28  ;  ferns, 
142 ;  fruits,  81  ;  leaves,  38,  42, 
43,  49  ;  mosses,  134  ;  pines, 
151  ;  review,  158 ;  rhizomes, 
23  ;  roots,  14 ;  seeds,  5  ;  stems  — 
twigs,  19,  29,  30  ;  stems — mod- 
ified, 23  ;  woods,  151. 

Tap-root,  12. 

Temporary  mount,  93. 

Tendrils,  20. 

Tests,  5,  9,  12,  14. 


INDEX 


163 


Thallus,  131. 

Water-net,  97. 

Thallus  i)lants,  93-129. 

Weeds,  88. 

Thorns,  26. 

White  cedar,  163. 

Trillium,  61. 

Willow.s,  46. 

Tubers,  21. 

Win-s,  4,64,  110. 

Twigs,  19. 

Winter  annuals,  37. 

Twining  stems,  20. 

Winter  buds,  18. 

Winter  rosettes,  37. 

Umbel,  57. 

Winter  twigs,  18. 

Underground  stems,  138. 

Wood,  27,  28,  149. 

Vascular  bundles,  139. 

Vaucheria,  106. 

Xerophytes,  146. 

Vegetables,  6.  58,  59. 

Xylem,  139. 

Vegetative  notch,  130. 

Veins,  32. 

Venation,  34,  35,  138. 

Yeast,  115. 

Vernation,  34. 

Vessels,  139. 

Violet  Family,  66. 

Zones,  18. 

Zoogonidia,  105. 

Water  liverwort,  130. 

Zoiispores,  97,  105. 

Water  mold,  121. 

Zygnema,  102. 

I# 

rJ^ 

i 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


ESSENTIALS  OF  BOTANY 

By  JOSEPH   YOUNG  BERGEN 


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Pratt:  Invertebrate  Zoology 1.25 

Pratt:  Vertebrate  Zoology 1.50 

Russell  and  Hastings :  Experimental  Dairy  Bacteriology  .  .  .  i.oo 
Sabine  :  Laboratory  Course  in  Physical  Measurements  (Rev.  Ed.)      1.25 

Sellers:  Qualitative  Analysis  (Rev.  Ed.) i.oo 

Stone:  Experimental  Physics i.oo 

Ward:  Practical  Exercises  in  Elementary  Meteorology       .     .     .     1.12 

Wentworth  and  Hill:  Textbook  of  Physics 1.15 

Williams:   Elements  of  Chemistry i.io 

Williams:   Essentials  of  Chemistry 1.25 

Young:   General  Astronomy 2.75 

Young:   Lessons  in  Astronomy  (Rev.  Ed.) 1.25 

Young  :   Manual  of  Astronomy 2.25 

146 

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